General
Reference Glossaries
Of
Interest to Theosophists
Cardiff Theosophical Society in Wales
206 Newport Road, Cardiff, Wales, UK. CF24 -1DL
A Dictionary of Philosophers,
Theologians and
Political Commentators
Reference
Work
Abælardus
(Petrus), b. 1079. A teacher of philosophy at Paris, renowned
for being loved
by the celebrated Eloise. He was accused of teaching
erroneous
opinions, chiefly about the Creation and the Trinity, and was
condemned by a
council at Soissons in 1121 and by that of Sens 1140,
at the
instigation of St. Bernard. He was hunted about, but spent
his last days
as a monk at Cluni. He died 21 April, 1142. "Abelard,"
observes Hallam,
"was almost the first who awakened mankind, in the
age of
darkness, to a sympathy with intellectual excellence."
Abano (Petrus
de). See Petrus, de Abano.
Abauzit
(Firmin), a French writer, descended from an Arabian family
which settled
in the South of France early in the ninth century,
b. Uzes, 11
Nov. 1679. He travelled in Holland and became acquainted
with Bayle,
attained a reputation for philosophy, and was consulted by
Voltaire and
Rousseau. Among his works are, Reflections on the Gospels,
and an essay on
the Apocalypse, in which he questions the authority
of that work.
Died at Geneva 20 March, 1767. His Miscellanies were
translated in
English by E. Harwood, 1774.
Abbot (Francis
Ellingwood). American Freethinker, b. Boston, 6
Nov. 1836. He
graduated at Harvard University 1859, began life as a
Unitarian
minister, but becoming too broad for that Church, resigned
in 1869. He
started the Index, a journal of free religious inquiry
and
anti-supernaturalism, at Toledo, but since 1874 at Boston. This he
edited 1870-80.
In 1872 appeared his Impeachment of Christianity. In
addition to his
work on the Index, Mr. Abbot has lectured a great
deal, and has
contributed to the North American Review and other
periodicals. He
was the first president of the American National
Liberal League.
Mr. Abbot is an evolutionist and Theist, and defends
his views in
Scientific Theism, 1886.
Ablaing van
Giessenburg (R.C.) See Giessenburg.
Abu Bakr Ibn
Al-Tufail (Abu J'afar) Al Isbili. Spanish Arabian
philosopher, b.
at Guadys, wrote a philosophical romance of pantheistic
tendency Hai
Ibn Yakdan, translated into Latin by Pocock, Oxford 1671,
and into
English by S. Ockley, 1711, under the title of The Improvement
of Human
Reason. Died at Morocco 1185.
Abu-Fazil (Abu
al Fadhl ibn Mubarak, called Al Hindi), vizier to
the great
Emperor Akbar from 1572. Although by birth a Muhammadan,
his
investigations into the religions of India made him see equal
worth in all,
and, like his master, Akbar, he was tolerant of all
sects. His
chief work is the Ayin Akbary, a statistical account of
the Indian
Empire. It was translated by F. Gladwin, 1777. He was
assassinated
1604.
Abul-Abbas-Abdallah
III. (Al Mamoun), the seventh Abbasside, caliph,
son of Haroun
al Rashid, was b. at Bagdad 16 Sept. 786. He was a patron of science and
literature, collected Greek and Hebrew manuscripts, and invited the scholars of
all nations to his capital. He wrote several treatises and poems. Died in war
near Tarsus, 9 Aug. 833.
Abul-Ola (Ahmad
ibn Abd Allah ibn Sulaiman), celebrated Arabian poet,
b. at Maari, in
Syria, Dec., 973. His free opinions gave much scandal
to devout
Moslems. He was blind through small-pox from the age of
four years, but
his poems exhibit much knowledge. He called himself
"the
doubly imprisoned captive," in allusion to his seclusion and
loss of sight.
He took no pains to conceal that he believed in no
revealed
religion. Died May, 1057, and ordered the following verse
to be written
on his tomb:--"I owe this to the fault of my father:
none owe the
like to mine."
Abu Tahir (al
Karmatti), the chief of a freethinking sect at Bahrein,
on the Persian
Gulf, who with a comparatively small number of followers
captured Mecca
(930), and took away the black stone. He suddenly
attacked,
defeated, and took prisoner Abissaj whom, at the head of
thirty thousand
men, the caliph had sent against him. Died in 943.
Achillini
(Alessandro), Italian physician and philosopher b. Bologna 29
Oct. 1463. He
expounded the doctrines of Averroes, and wrote largely
upon anatomy.
Died 2 Aug. 1512. His collected works were published
at Venice,
1545.
Ackermann
(Louise-Victorine, née Choquet), French poetess, b. Paris 30
Nov. 1813. She
travelled to Germany and there married (1853) a young
theologian,
Paul Ackerman, who in preparing for the ministry lost his
Christian
faith, and who, after becoming teacher to Prince Frederick
William
(afterwards Frederick III.), died at the age of thirty-four
(1846). Both
were friends of Proudhon. Madame Ackermann's poems
(Paris 1863-74
and 85) exhibit her as a philosophic pessimist and
Atheist.
"God is dethroned," says M. Caro of her poems (Revue des
Deux Mondes, 15
May, 1874). She professes hatred of Christianity
and its
interested professors. She has also published Thoughts of a
Solitary.
Sainte Beuve calls her "the learned solitary of Nice."
Acollas (Pierre
Antoine René Paul Emile), French jurisconsult and
political
writer, b. La Châtre 25 June, 1826, studied law at Paris. For
participating
in the Geneva congress of the International Society
in 1867 he was
condemned to one year's imprisonment. In 1871 he was
appointed head
of the law faculty by the Commune. He has published
several manuals
popularising the legal rights of the people, and has
written on
Marriage its Past, Present, and Future, 1880. Mrs. Besant
has translated
his monograph on The Idea of God in the Revolution,
published in
the Droits de l'Homme.
Acontius
(Jacobus--Italian, Giacomo Aconzio). Born at Trent early
in sixteenth
century. After receiving ordination in the Church of
Rome he
relinquished that faith and fled to Switzerland in 1557. He
subsequently
came to England and served Queen Elizabeth as a military
engineer. To
her he dedicated his Strategems of Satan, published at
Basle 1565.
This was one of the earliest latitudinarian works, and
was placed upon
the Index. It was also bitterly assailed by Protestant
divines, both
in England and on the Continent. An English translation
appeared in
1648. Some proceedings were taken against Acontius before
Bishop
Grindall, of the result of which no account is given. Some
passages of
Milton's Areopagitica may be traced to Acontius, who,
Cheynell
informs us, lived till 1623. Stephen's Dictionary of National
Biography says
he is believed to have died shortly after 1566.
Acosta (Uriel).
Born at Oporto 1597, the son of a Christianised Jew;
he was brought
up as a Christian, but on reaching maturity, rejected
that faith. He
went to Holland, where he published a work equally
criticising
Moses and Jesus. For this he was excommunicated by the
Synagogue,
fined and put in prison by the Amsterdam authorities,
and his work
suppressed. After suffering many indignities from both
Jews and
Christians, he committed suicide 1647.
Adams (George),
of Bristol, sentenced in 1842 to one month's
imprisonment
for selling the Oracle of Reason.
Adams (Robert
C.), Canadian Freethought writer and lecturer. Author
of Travels in
Faith from Tradition to Reason (New York, 1884), also
Evolution, a
Summary of Evidence.
Adler (Felix)
Ph. D. American Freethinker, the son of a Jewish rabbi,
was b. in
Alzey, Germany, 13 Aug. 1851. He graduated at Columbia
College, 1870,
was professor of Hebrew and Oriental literature
at Cornell
University from '74 to May '76, when he established in
New York the
Society of Ethical Culture, to which he discourses on
Sundays. In
1877 he published a volume entitled Creed and Deed, in
which he
rejects supernatural religion. Dr. Adler has also contributed
many papers to
the Radical literature of America.
Ænesidemus. A
Cretan sceptical philosopher of the first century. He
adopted the
principle of Heraclitus, that all things were in course
of change, and
argued against our knowledge of ultimate causes.
Airy (Sir
George Biddell). English Astronomer Royal, b. Alnwick
27 July, 1801.
Educated at Cambridge, where he became senior
wrangler 1823.
During a long life Professor Airy did much to advance
astronomical
science. His Notes on the Earlier Hebrew Scriptures 1876,
proves him to
have been a thorough-going Freethinker.
Aitkenhead
(Thomas), an Edinburgh student aged eighteen, who was
indicted for
blasphemy, by order of the Privy Council, for having
called the Old
Testament "Ezra's Fables," and having maintained
that God and
nature were the same. He was found guilty 24 Dec. 1696,
and hanged for
blasphemy, 8 Jan. 1697.
Aitzema (Lieuwe
van), a nobleman of Friesland, b. at Dorckum 19
Nov. 1600,
author of a suppressed History of the Netherlands, between
1621-68. Is
classed by Reimmann as an Atheist. Died at the Hague 23
Feb. 1669.
Akbar
(Jalal-ed-din Muhammad), the greatest of the emperors of
Hindostan, b.
15 Oct. 1542, was famous for his wide administration and
improvement of
the empire. Akbar showed toleration alike to Christians,
Muhammadans,
and to all forms of the Hindu faith. He had the Christian
gospels and several
Brahmanical treatises translated into Persian. The
result of his
many conferences on religion between learned men of
all sects, are
collected in the Dabistan. Akbar was brought up as a
Muhammadan, but
became a Theist, acknowledging one God, but rejecting
all other
dogmas. Died Sept. 1605.
Alberger
(John). American author of Monks, Popes, and their Political
Intrigues
(Baltimore, 1871) and Antiquity of Christianity (New York,
1874).
Albini
(Giuseppe). Italian physiologist, b. Milan. In 1845 he
studied
medicine in Paris. He has written on embryology and many
other
physiological subjects.
Alchindus.
Yakub ibn Is'hak ibn Subbah (Abú Yúsuf) called Al Kindi,
Arab physician
and philosopher, the great grandson of one of the
companions of
Muhammad, the prophet, flourished from 814 to about
840. He was a
rationalist in religion, and for his scientific studies
he was set down
as a magician.
Alciati
(Giovanni Paolo). A Milanese of noble family. At first
a Romanist, he
resigned that faith for Calvinism, but gradually
advanced to
Anti-trinitarianism, which he defends in two letters
to Gregorio
Pauli, dated Austerlitz 1564 and 1565. Beza says that
Alciati
deserted the Christian faith and became a Muhammadan, but
Bayle takes
pains to disprove this. Died at Dantzic about 1570.
Aleardi
(Gaetano). Italian poet, known as Aleardo Aleardi, b. Verona, 4
Nov. 1812. He
was engaged in a life-long struggle against the Austrian
dominion, and
his patriotic poems were much admired. In 1859 he was
elected deputy
to Parliament for Brescia. Died Verona, 16 July, 1878.
Alembert (Jean
le Rond d'), mathematician and philosopher, b. at
Paris 16 Nov.
1717. He was an illegitimate son of Canon Destouches
and Mme.
Tencin, and received his Christian name from a church
near which he
was exposed as a foundling. He afterwards resided
for forty years
with his nurse, nor would he leave her for the most
tempting
offers. In 1741, he was admitted a member of the Academy of
Sciences. In
1749, he obtained the prize medal from the Academy of
Berlin, for a
discourse on the theory of winds. In 1749, he solved the
problem of the
procession of the equinoxes and explained the mutation
of the earth's
axis. He next engaged with Diderot, with whose opinions
he was in
complete accord, in compiling the famous Encyclopédie, for
which he wrote
the preliminary discourse. In addition to this great
work he
published many historical, philosophical and scientific essays,
and largely
corresponded with Voltaire. His work on the Destruction
of the Jesuits
is a caustic and far-reaching production. In a letter
to Frederick
the Great, he says: "As for the existence of a supreme
intelligence, I
think that those who deny it advance more than they
can prove, and
scepticism is the only reasonable course." He goes on
to say,
however, that experience invincibly proves the materiality of
the
"soul." Died 29 Oct. 1783. In 1799 two volumes of his posthumous
essays were
printed in Paris. His works prove d'Alembert to have been
of broad spirit
and of most extensive knowledge.
Alfieri (Vittorio),
Count. Famous Italian poet and dramatist, b. Asti,
Piedmont, 17
Jan. 1749, of a noble family. His tragedies are justly
celebrated, and
in his Essay on Tyranny he shows himself as favorable
to religious as
to political liberty. Written in his youth, this work
was revised at
a more advanced age, the author remarking that if he
had no longer
the courage, or rather the fire, necessary to compose
it, he
nevertheless retained intelligence, independence and judgment
enough to
approve it, and to let it stand as the last of his literary
productions.
His attack is chiefly directed against Catholicism,
but he does not
spare Christianity. "Born among a people," he says,
"slavish,
ignorant, and already entirely subjugated by priests, the
Christian
religion knows only how to enjoin the blindest obedience,
and is
unacquainted even with the name of liberty." Alfieri's tragedy
of Saul has
been prohibited on the English stage. Died Florence,
8 Oct. 1803.
Alfonso X.,
surnamed the Wise, King of Castillo and of Leon; b. in
1223, crowned
1252. A patron of science and lover of astronomy. He
compiled a
complete digest of Roman, feudal and canon law, and
had drawn up
the astronomical tables called Alfonsine Tables. By
his liberality
and example he gave a great impulse to Spanish
literature. For
his intercourse with Jews and Arabians, his
independence
towards the Pope and his free disposal of the clerical
revenues, he
has been stigmatised as an Atheist. To him is attributed
the well-known
remark that had he been present at the creation of the
world he would
have proposed some improvements. Father Lenfant adds
the pious lie
that "The king had scarcely pronounced this blasphemy
when a
thunderbolt fell and reduced his wife and two children to
ashes."
Alfonso X. died 4 April, 1284.
Algarotti
(Francesco), Count. Italian writer and art critic, b. at
Venice, 11 Dec.
1712. A visit to England led him to write Newtonianism
for the Ladies.
He afterwards visited Berlin and became the friend
both of
Voltaire and of Frederick the Great, who appointed him his
Chamberlain.
Died with philosophical composure at Pisa, 3 May, 1764.
Alger (William
Rounseville), b. at Freetown, Massachusetts, 30
Dec. 1822,
educated at Harvard, became a Unitarian preacher of the
advanced type.
His Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future
Life, with a
complete bibliography of the subject by Ezra Abbot,
is a standard
work, written from the Universalist point of view.
Allen (Charles
Grant Blairfindie), naturalist and author, b. in
Kingston,
Canada, 24 Feb. 1848. He studied at Merton College, Oxford,
and graduated
with honors 1871. In 1873 appointed Professor of Logic
in Queen's
College, Spanish town, Jamaica; from 1874 to '77 he was
its principal.
Since then he has resided in England, and become
known by his
popular expositions of Darwinism. His published works
include
Physiological Æsthetics (1877), The Evolutionist at Large
(1881), Nature
Studies (1883), Charles Darwin (1885), and several
novels. Grant
Allen has also edited the miscellaneous works of Buckle,
and has written
on Force and Energy (1888).
Allen (Ethan)
Col., American soldier, b. at Litchfield, Connecticut,
10 Jan. 1737.
One of the most active of the revolutionary heroes,
he raised a
company of volunteers known as the "Green Mountain Boys,"
and took by
surprise the British fortress of Ticonderoga, capturing
100 guns, 10
May, 1775. He was declared an outlaw and £100 offered
for his arrest
by Gov. Tryon of New York. Afterwards he was taken
prisoner and
sent to England. At first treated with cruelty, he was
eventually
exchanged for another officer, 6 May, 1778. He was a member
of the state
legislature, and succeeded in obtaining the recognition
of Vermont as
an independent state. He published in 1784 Reason
the only Oracle
of Man, the first publication in the
openly directed
against the Christian religion. It has been frequently
reprinted and
is still popular in America. Died Burlington, Vermont,
13 Feb. 1789. A
statue is erected to him at Montpelier, Vermont.
Allsop
(Thomas). "The favorite disciple of Coleridge," b. 10 April,
1794, near
Wirksworth, Derbyshire, he lived till 1880. A friend
of Robert Owen
and the Chartists. He was implicated in the attempt
of Orsini
against Napoleon III. In his Letters, Conversations and
Recollections
of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, he has imported many of
his Freethought
views.
Alm (Richard
von der). See Ghillany (F. W.)
Alpharabius
(Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Tarkhan) (Abu Nasr), called
Al Farabi,
Turkish philosopher, termed by Ibn Khallikan the greatest
philosopher the
Moslems ever had, travelled to Bagdad, mastered
the works of
Aristotle, and became master of Avicenna. Al Farabi is
said to have
taught the eternity of the world and to have denied the
permanent
individuality of the soul. His principal work is a sort
of encyclopædia.
Rénan says he expressly rejected all supernatural
revelation.
Died at Damascus Dec. 950, aged upwards of eighty.
Amaury or
Amalric de Chartres, a heretic of the thirteenth century,
was a native of
Bene, near Chartres, and lived at Paris, where he gave
lessons in
logic. In a work bearing the title of Physion, condemned
by a bull of
Pope Innocent III. (1204), he is said to have taught a
kind of
Pantheism, and that the reign of the Father and Son must give
place to that
of the Holy Spirit. Ten of his disciples were burnt at
Paris 20 Dec.
1210, and the bones of Amaury were exhumed and placed
in the flames.
Amberley (John
Russell) Viscount, eldest son of Earl Russell,
b. 1843.
Educated at Harrow, Edinburgh and Trinity College,
Cambridge,
where ill-health prevented him reading for honors. He
entered
Parliament in 1866 as Radical member for Nottingham. Lord
Amberley
contributed thoughtful articles to the North British,
the Fortnightly
and Theological Reviews, and will be remembered by
his bold Analysis
of Religious Belief (1876), in which he examines,
compares and
criticises the various faiths of the world. Lord Amberley
left his son to
be brought up by Mr. Spalding, a self-taught man of
great ability
and force of character; but the will was set aside, on
appeal to the
Court of Chancery, in consideration of Mr. Spalding's
heretical
views. Died 8 Jan. 1876.
Amman (Hans
Jacob), German surgeon and traveller, b.
1586. In 1612
he went to Constantinople, Palestine and Egypt, and
afterwards
published a curious book called Voyage in the Promised
Land. Died at
Zurich, 1658.
Ammianus
(Marcellinus). Roman soldier-historian of the fourth century,
b. at Antioch.
He wrote the Roman history from the reign of Nerva to
the death of
Valens in thirty-one books, of which the first thirteen
are lost. His
history is esteemed impartial and trustworthy. He served
under Julian,
and compares the rancor of the Christians of the period
to that of wild
beasts. Gibbon calls him "an accurate and faithful
guide."
Died about 395 A.D.
Ammonius,
surnamed Saccas or the Porter, from his having been obliged
in the early
part of his life to adopt that calling, was born of
Christian
parents in Alexandria during the second century. He,
however, turned
Pagan and opened a school of philosophy. Among his
pupils were
Origen, Longinus and Plotinus. He undoubtedly originated
the
Neo-Platonic movement, which formed the most serious opposition
to Christianity
in its early career. Ammonius died A.D. 243, aged
over eighty
years.
Anaxagoras, a
Greek philosopher of the Ionic school, b. about 499 B.C.,
lived at Athens
and enjoyed the friendship of Pericles. In 450 B.C. he
was accused of
Atheism for maintaining the eternity of matter and was
banished to
Lampsacus, where he died in 428 B.C. It is related that,
being asked how
he desired to be honored after death, he replied,
"Only let
the day of my death be observed as a holiday by the boys
in the
schools." He taught that generation and destruction are only
the union and
separation of elements which can neither be created
nor
annihilated.
Andre-Nuytz
(Louis), author of Positivism for All, an elementary
exposition of
Positive philosophy, to which Littré wrote a preface,
1868.
Andrews
(Stephen Pearl). American Sociologist, b. Templeton, Mass.,
22 March, 1812.
He was an ardent Abolitionist, an eloquent speaker,
and the
inventor of a universal language called Alwato. His principle
work is
entitled The Basic Outline of Universology (N. Y., 1872). He
also wrote The
Church and Religion of the Future (1886). He was a
prominent
member and vice-president of the Liberal Club of New York,
a contributor
to the London Times, the New York Truthseeker, and many
other journals.
Died at New York, 21 May, 1886.
Andrieux
(Louis). French deputy, b. Trévoux 20 July, 1840. Was
called to the
bar at Lyons, where he became famous for his political
pleading. He
took part in the Freethought Congress at Naples in 1869,
and in June of
the following year he was imprisoned for three months
for his attack
on the Empire. On the establishment of the Republic he
was nominated
procureur at Lyons. He was on the municipal council of
that city,
which he has also represented in the Chamber of Deputies. In
1879 he became
Prefect of Police at Paris, but retired in 1881 and was
elected deputy
by his constituents at Lyons. He has written Souvenirs
of a Prefect of
Police (1885).
Angelucci
(Teodoro). Italian poet and philosopher, b. near Tolentino
1549. He
advocated Aristotle against F. Patrizi, and was banished
from Rome. One
of the first emancipators of modern thought in Italy,
he also made an
excellent translation of the Æneid of Virgil. Died
Montagnana,
1600.
Angiulli
(Andrea). Italian Positivist, b. Castellana 12 Feb. 1837,
author of a
work on philosophy and Positive research, Naples 1868. He
became
professor of Anthropology at Naples in 1876, and edits a
philosophical
review published in that city since 1881.
Annet (Peter).
One of the most forcible writers among the English
Deists, b. at
Liverpool in 1693. He was at one time a schoolmaster
and invented a
system of shorthand. Priestley learnt it at school
and
corresponded with Annet. In 1739 he published a pamphlet on
Freethinking
the Great Duty of Religion, by P. A., minister of
religion. This
was followed by the Conception of Jesus as the
Foundation of
the Christian Religion, in which he boldly attacks
the doctrine of
the Incarnation as "a legend of the Romanists,"
and The
Resurrection of Jesus Considered (1744) in answer to Bishop
Sherlock's
Trial of the Witnesses. This controversy was continued in
The
Resurrection Reconsidered and The Resurrection Defenders Stript
of all Defence.
In An Examination of the History and Character of
St. Paul he
attacks the sincerity of the apostle to the Gentiles and
even questions
the authenticity of his epistles. In Supernaturals
Examined (1747)
he argues that all miracles are incredible. In 1761
he issued nine
numbers of the Free Inquirer, in which he attacked
the
authenticity and credibility of the Pentateuch. For this he was
brought before
the King's Bench and sentenced to suffer one month's
imprisonment in
Newgate, to stand twice in the pillory, once at
Charing Cross
and once at the Exchange, with a label "For Blasphemy,"
then to have a
year's hard labor in Bridewell and to find sureties
for good
behavior during the rest of his life. It is related that
a woman seeing
Annet in the pillory said, "Gracious! pilloried for
blasphemy. Why,
don't we blaspheme every day!" After his release Annet
set up a school
at Lambeth. Being asked his views on a future life
he replied by
this apologue: "One of my friends in Italy, seeing the
sign of an inn,
asked if that was the Angel." "No," was the reply,
"do you
not see it is the sign of a dragon." "Ah," said my friend,
"as I have
never seen either angel or dragon, how can I tell whether
it is one or
the other?" Died 18 Jan. 1769. The History of the Man
after God's Own
Heart (1761) ascribed to Annet, was more probably
written by
Archibald Campbell. The View of the Life of King David
(1765) by W.
Skilton, Horologist, is also falsely attributed to Annet.
Anthero de
Quental, Portuguese writer, b. San Miguel 1843. Educated
for the law at
the University of Coimbra, he has published both poetry
and prose,
showing him to be a student of Hartmann, Proudhon and Rénan,
and one of the
most advanced minds in Portugal.
Anthony (Susan
Brownell). American reformer, b. of a Quaker family
at South Adams,
Massachusetts, 15 Feb. 1820. She became a teacher,
a temperance
reformer, an opponent of slavery, and an ardent advocate
of women's
rights. Of the last movement she became secretary. In
conjunction
with Mrs. E. C. Stanton and Parker Pillsbury she conducted
The
Revolutionist founded in New York in 1868, and with Mrs. Stanton
and Matilda
Joslyn Gage she has edited the History of Woman's Suffrage,
1881. Miss
Anthony is a declared Agnostic.
Antoine
(Nicolas). Martyr. Denied the Messiahship and divinity of
Jesus, and was
strangled and burnt at Geneva, 20 April, 1632.
Antonelle
(Pierre Antoine) Marquis d', French political economist,
b. Arles 1747. He
embraced the revolution with ardor, and his article
in the Journal
des Hommes Libres occasioned his arrest with Baboeuf. He
was, however,
acquitted. Died at Arles, 26 Nov. 1817.
Antoninus
(Marcus Aurelius). See Aurelius.
Apelt (Ernst
Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Reichenau 3 March,
1812. He
criticised the philosophy of religion from the standpoint
of reason, and
wrote many works on metaphysics. Died near Gorlitz,
27 Oct. 1859.
Aquila, a Jew
of Pontus, who became a proselyte to Christianity, but
afterwards left
that religion. He published a Greek version of the
Hebrew
scriptures to show that the prophecies did not apply to Jesus
(A.D. 128). The
work is lost. He has been identified by E. Deutsch
with the author
of the Targum of Onkelos.
Arago (Dominique
François Jean), French academician, politician,
physicist and
astronomer, b. Estagel, 26 Feb. 1786. He was elected to
the French
Academy of Sciences at the age of twenty-three. He made
several optical
and electro-magnetic discoveries, and advocated
the undulatory
theory of light. He was an ardent Republican and
Freethinker,
and took part in the provisional Government of 1848. He
opposed the
election of Louis Napoleon, and refused to take the
oath of
allegiance after the coup d'état of December, 1851. Died 2
Oct. 1853.
Humboldt calls him a "zealous defender of the interests
of
Reason."
Ardigo
(Roberto), Italian philosopher, b. at Casteldidone (Cremona)
28 Jan. 1828,
was intended for the Church, but took to philosophy. In
1869 he
published a discourse on Peitro Pomponazzi, followed next year
by Psychology
as a Positive Science. Signor Ardigo has also written on
the formation
of the solar system and on the historical formation of
the ideas of
God and the soul. An edition of his philosophical works
was commenced
at Mantua in 1882. Ardigo is one of the leaders of the
Italian
Positivists. His Positivist Morals appeared in Padua 1885.
Argens (Jean
Baptiste de Boyer) Marquis d', French writer, b. at
Aix, in
Provence, 24 June 1704. He adopted a military life and
served with
distinction. On the accession of Frederick the Great
he invited
d'Argens to his court at Berlin, and made him one of his
chamberlains.
Here he resided twenty-five years and then returned to
Aix, where he
resided till his death 11 June, 1771. His works were
published in
1768 in twenty-four volumes. Among them are Lettres
Juives, Lettres
Chinoises and Lettres Cabalistiques, which were
joined to La
Philosophie du bon sens. He also translated Julian's
discourse
against Christianity and Ocellus Lucanus on the Eternity
of the World.
Argens took Bayle as his model, but he was inferior to
that
philosopher.
Argental
(Charles Augustin de Ferriol) Count d', French diplomat,
b. Paris 20
Dec. 1700, was a nephew of Mme. de Tencin, the mother
of D'Alembert. He
is known for his long and enthusiastic friendship
for Voltaire.
He was said to be the author of Mémoires du Comte de
Comminge and
Anecdotes de la cour d'Edouard. Died 5 Jan. 1788.
Aristophanes,
great Athenian comic poet, contemporary with Socrates,
Plato, and
Euripides, b. about 444 B.C. Little is known of his life. He
wrote
fifty-four plays, of which only eleven remain, and was crowned
in a public
assembly for his attacks on the oligarchs. With the utmost
boldness he
satirised not only the the political and social evils
of the age, but
also the philosophers, the gods, and the theology
of the period.
Plato is said to have died with Aristophanes' works
under his
pillow. Died about 380 B.C.
Aristotle, the
most illustrious of ancient philosophers, was born at
Stagyra, in
Thrace, 384 B.C. He was employed by Philip of Macedon
to instruct his
son Alexander. His inculcation of ethics as apart
from all
theology, justifies his place in this list. After the death
of Alexander,
he was accused of impiety and withdrew to Chalcis,
where he died
B.C. 322. Grote says: "In the published writings of
Aristotle the
accusers found various heretical doctrines suitable for
sustaining
their indictment; as, for example, the declaration that
prayer and
sacrifices to the gods were of no avail." His influence
was predominant
upon philosophy for nearly two thousand years. Dante
speaks of him
as "the master of those that know."
Arnold of
Brescia, a pupil of Abelard. He preached against the papal
authority and
the temporal power, and the vices of the clergy. He
was condemned
for heresy by a Lateran Council in 1139, and retired
from Italy. He
afterwards returned to Rome and renewed his exertions
against
sacerdotal oppression, and was eventually seized and burnt at
Rome in 1155.
Baronius calls him "the patriarch of political heretics."
Arnold
(Matthew), LL.D. poet and critic, son of Dr. Arnold of Rugby,
b. at Laleham
24 Dec. 1822. Educated at Winchester, Rugby, and Oxford,
where he won
the Newdigate prize. In 1848 he published the Strayed
Reveller, and
other Poems, signed A. In 1851 he married and became
an inspector of
schools. In 1853 appeared Empedocles on Etna, a poem
in which, under
the guise of ancient teaching he gives much secular
philosophy. In
1857 he was elected Professor of Poetry at Oxford. In
1871 he
published an essay entitled St. Paul and Protestantism; in 1873
Literature and
Dogma, which, from its rejection of supernaturalism,
occasioned much
stir and was followed by God and the Bible. In 1877
Mr. Arnold
published Last Essays on Church and State. Mr. Arnold
has a lucid
style and is abreast of the thought of his age, but he
curiously
unites rejection of supernaturalism, including a personal
God, with a
fond regard for the Church of England. He may be said
in his own
words to wander "between two worlds, one dead, the other
powerless to be
born." Died 15 April, 1888.
Arnould
(Arthur), French writer, b. Dieuze 7 April, 1833. As
journalist he
wrote on l'Opinion Nationale, the Rappel, Reforme and
other papers.
In 1864 he published a work on Beranger, and in '69 a
History of the
Inquisition. In Jan. 1870 he founded La Marseillaise
with H.
Rochefort, and afterwards the Journal du Peuple with Jules
Valles. He was
elected to the National Assembly and was member of
the Commune, of
which he has written a history in three volumes. He
has also
written many novels and dramas.
Arnould
(Victor), Belgian Freethinker, b. Maestricht, 7 Nov. 1838,
advocate at the
Court of Appeal, Brussels. Author of a History of the
Church 1874,
and a little work on the Philosophy of Liberalism 1877.
Arouet
(François Marie). See Voltaire.
Arpe (Peter
Friedrich). Philosopher, b. Kiel, Holstein, 10 May,
1682. Wrote an
apology for Vanini dated Cosmopolis (i.e., Rotterdam,
1712). A reply
to La Monnoye's treatise on the book De Tribus
Impostoribus is
attributed to him. Died, Hamburg, 4 Nov. 1740.
Arthur (John)
is inserted in Maréchal's Dictionnaire des Athées
as a mechanic
from near Birmingham, who took a prize at Paris and
republished the
Invocation to Nature in the last pages of the System
of Nature.
Julian Hibbert inserted his name in his Chronological
Tables of
Anti-Superstitionists, with the date of death 1792.
Asseline
(Louis). French writer, b. at Versailles in 1829, became an
advocate in
1851. In 1866 he established La Libre Pensée, a weekly
journal of
scientific materialism, and when that was suppressed
La Pensée
Nouvelle. He was one of the founders of the Encyclopédie
Générale. He
wrote Diderot and the Nineteenth Century, and contributed
to many
journals. After the revolution of 4 Sept. 1870 he was elected
mayor of the
fourteenth arrondissement of Paris, and was afterwards
one of the
Municipal Council of that city. Died 6 April, 1878.
Assezat
(Jules). French writer, b. at Paris 21 Jan. 1832 was a son
of a compositor
on the Journal des Debats, on which Jules obtained a
position and
worked his way to the editorial chair. He was secretary of
the Paris
Society of Anthropology, contributed to La Pensée Nouvelle,
edited the Man
Machine of Lamettrie, and edited the complete works
of Diderot in
twenty volumes. Died 24 June, 1876.
Assollant
(Jean, Baptiste Alfred). French novelist, b. 20 March,
1827. Larousse
says he has all the scepticism of Voltaire.
Ast (Georg
Anton Friedrich). German Platonist, b. Gotha 29
Dec. 1778. Was
professor of classical literature at Landshut and
Munich. Wrote
Elements of Philosophy, 1809, etc. Died Munich 31
Dec. 1841.
Atkinson (Henry
George). Philosophic writer, b. in 1818. Was educated
at the
Charterhouse, gave attention to mesmerism, and wrote in
the Zoist. In
1851 he issued Letters on the Laws of Man's Nature
and
Development, in conjunction with Harriet Martineau, to whom he
served as
philosophic guide. This work occasioned a considerable
outcry. Mr.
Atkinson was a frequent contributor to the National
Reformer and
other Secular journals. He died 28 Dec. 1884, at Boulogne,
where he had
resided since 1870.
Aubert de Verse
(Noel). A French advocate of the seventeenth century,
who wrote a
history of the Papacy (1685) and was accused of blasphemy.
Audebert
(Louise). French authoress of the Romance of a Freethinker
and of an able
Reply of a Mother to the Bishop of Orleans, 1868.
Audifferent
(Georges). Positivist and executor to Auguste Comte,
was born at
Saint Pierre (Martinque) in 1823, settled at Marseilles,
and is the
author of several medical and scientific works.
Aurelius
(Marcus Antoninus). Roman Emperor and Stoic philosopher, b. at
Rome 26 April,
121. Was carefully educated, and lived a laborious,
abstemious
life. On the death of his uncle Antoninus Pius, 161, the
Senate obliged
him to take the government, but he associated with
himself L.
Verus. On the death of Verus in 169 Antoninus possessed
sole authority,
which he exercised with wise discretion and great
glory. Much of
his time was employed in defending the northern
frontiers of
the empire against Teutonic barbarians. He had no
high opinion of
Christians, speaking of their obstinacy, and it is
pretended many
were put to death in the reign of one of the best
emperors that
ever ruled. If so we may be assured it was for their
crimes.
Ecclesiastical historians have invented another pious miracle
in a victory
gained through the prayers of the Christians. Antoninus
held that duty
was indispensable even were there no gods. His
Meditations,
written in the midst of a most active life, breathe a
lofty morality,
and are a standing refutation of the view that pure
ethics depend
upon Christian belief. Died 17 March, 180.
Austin
(Charles), lawyer and disciple of Bentham, b. Suffolk 1799. At
Cambridge,
where he graduated B.A. in 1824 and M.A. in 1827, he won,
much to the
amazement of his friends, who knew his heterodox opinions,
the Hulsean
prize for an essay on Christian evidences. For this he
was sorry
afterwards, and told Lord Stanley of Alderley "I could
have written a
much better essay on the other side." He afterwards
wrote on the
other side in the Westminster Review. Successful as a
lawyer, he
retired in ill-health. J. S. Mill writes highly of his
influence. The
Hon. L. A. Tollemache gives a full account of his
heretical
opinions. He says "He inclined to Darwinism, because as he
said, it is so
antecedently probable; but, long before this theory
broke the back
of final causes, he himself had given them up." Died
21 Dec. 1874.
Austin (John),
jurist, brother of above, was born 3 March, 1790. A
friend of James
Mill, Grote and Bentham, whose opinions he shared,
he is chiefly
known by his profound works on jurisprudence. Died 17
Dec. 1859.
Avempace, i.e.,
Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn Bajjat (Abu Bekr), called
Ibn al-Saigh
(the son of the goldsmith), Arabian philosopher and
poet, b. at
Saragossa, practised medicine at Seville 1118, which he
quitted about
1120, and became vizier at the court of Fez, where he
died about
1138. An admirer of Aristotle, he was one of the teachers
of Averroes.
Al-Fath Ibn Khâkân represents him as an infidel and
Atheist, and
says: "Faith disappeared from his heart and left not a
trace behind;
his tongue forgot the Merciful, neither did [the holy]
name cross his
lips." He is said to have suffered imprisonment for
his heterodoxy.
Avenel
(Georges), French writer, b. at Chaumont
the promoters
of the Encyclopédie Générale. His vindication of Cloots
(1865) is a
solid work of erudition. He became editor of la République
Française and
edited the edition of Voltaire published by Le Siècle
(1867-70). Died
at Bougival, near
by his express
wish, buried without religious ceremony.
Averroes
(Muhammad Ibn-Ahmad Ibn Rushd), Abu al Walid, Arabian
philosopher, b.
at Cordova in 1126, and died at
Dec. 1198. He
translated and commented upon the works of Aristotle,
and resolutely
placed the claims of science above those of theology. He
was prosecuted
for his heretical opinions by the Muhammadan doctors,
was spat upon
by all who entered the mosque at the hour of prayer,
and afterwards
banished. His philosophical opinions, which incline
towards
materialism and pantheism, had the honor of being condemned
by the
Aquinas, and
when profoundly influencing
through the
Paduan school were again condemned by Pope Leo X. in 1513.
Avicenna
(Husain Ibn Abdallah, called Ibn Sina), Arabian physician and
philosopher, b.
Aug. 980 in the district of Bokhara. From his early
youth he was a
wonderful student, and at his death
he left behind
him above a hundred treatises. He was the sovereign
authority in
medical science until the days of
was pantheistic
in tone, with an attempt at compromise with theology.
Aymon (Jean),
French writer, b. Dauphiné 1661. Brought up in the
Church, he
abjured Catholicism at Geneva, and married at
published
Metamorphoses of the Romish Religion, and is said to have
put forward a
version of the Esprit de Spinoza under the famous title
Treatise of
Three Impostors. Died about 1734.
Bagehot
(Walter), economist and journalist, b. of Unitarian parents,
Langport,
Somersetshire,
March, 1877. He
was educated at
a fellow. For
the last seventeen years of his life he edited the
Economist
newspaper. His best-known works are The English Constitution,
a series of
essays on the Evolution of Society, he applies Darwinism
to politics.
Bagehot was a bold, clear, and very original thinker,
who rejected
historic Christianity.
Baggesen (Jens
Immanuel), Danish poet, b. Kösor,
Feb. 1764. In
1789 he visited
both in Danish
and German, among others Adam and Eve, a humorous mock
epic (1826). He
was an admirer of Voltaire. Died Hamburg, 3 Oct. 1826.
Bahnsen (Julius
Friedrich August), pessimist, b. Tondern,
Schleswig-Holstein,
30 Mar. 1830. Studied philosophy at Keil,
1847. He fought
against the Danes in '49, and afterwards studied at
Tübingen.
Bahnsen is an independent follower of Schopenhauer and
Hartmann,
joining monism to the idealism of Hegel. He has written
several works,
among which we mention The Philosophy of History,
Berlin, 1872,
and The Contradiction between the Knowledge and the
Nature of the
World (2 vols), Berlin 1880-82.
Bahrdt (Karl
Friedrich), German deist, b. in Saxony, 25
Aug. 1741.
Educated for the Church, in 1766 he was made professor
of biblical
philology. He was condemned for heresy, and wandered
from place to
place. He published a kind of expurgated Bible, called
New Revelations
of God: A System of Moral Religion for Doubters and
Thinkers,
Berlin, 1787, and a Catechism of Natural Religion, Halle,
1790. Died near
Halle, 23 April, 1792.
Bailey (James
Napier), Socialist, edited the Model Republic, 1843, the
Torch, and the
Monthly Messenger. He published Gehenna: its Monarch
and
Inhabitants; Sophistry Unmasked, and several other tracts in the
"Social
Reformer's Cabinet Library," and some interesting Essays on
Miscellaneous
Subjects, at Leeds, 1842.
Bailey
(Samuel), philosophical writer, of Sheffield, b. in 1791. His
essay on the
Formation and Publication of Opinions appeared in 1821. He
vigorously
contends that man is not responsible for his opinions
because they
are independent of his will, and that opinions should
not be the
subject of punishment. Another anonymous Freethought work
was Letters
from an Egyptian Kaffir on a Visit to England in Search
of Religion.
This was at first issued privately 1839, but afterwards
printed as a
Reasoner tract. He also wrote The Pursuit of Truth,
1829, and a
Theory of Reasoning, 1851. He was acquainted with both
James and John
Stuart Mill, and shared in most of the views of the
philosophical
Radicals of the period. Died
£90,000 to his
native town.
Bailey (William
S.), editor of the Liberal, published in
Tennessee, was
an Atheist up till the day of death, March, 1886. In
a slave-holding
State, he was the earnest advocate of abolition.
Baillie
(George), of Garnet Hill,
of the Scotch
counties. He was a liberal subscriber to the Glasgow
Eclectic
Institute. In 1854 he offered a prize for the best essay on
Christianity
and Infidelity, which was gained by Miss Sara Hennell. In
1857 another
prize was restricted to the question whether Jesus
prophesied the
coming of the end of the world in the life-time of his
followers. It
was gained by Mr. E. P. Meredith, and is incorporated
in his Prophet
of
of his fortune
(£18,000) which was to be applied to the erection
and endowment
of an institution to aid the culture of the operative
classes by
means of free libraries and unsectarian schools, retaining
only the
interest for himself as curator. He only survived a few years.
Baillière
(Gustave-Germer), French scientific publisher, b. at
scientific
publications such as the Library of Contemporary Philosophy,
and the
International Scientific Series. He was elected
Republican and
anti-clerical member of the Municipal Council of
Bain
(Alexander) LL.D. Scotch philosopher, b. at
began life as a
weaver but studied at
graduated M.A.
in 1840. He then began to contribute to the Westminster
Review, and
became acquainted with John Stuart Mill, whose Logic
he discussed in
manuscript. In 1855 he published The Senses and
The Intellect,
and in 1859 The Emotions and the Will, constituting
together a
systematic exposition of the human mind. From 1860 to
1880 he
occupied the Chair of Logic in the
his accession
being most obnoxious to the orthodox, and provoking
disorder among
the students. In 1869 he received the degree of
LL.D. In
addition to numerous educational works Dr. Bain published a
Compendium of
Mental and Moral Science (1868), Mind and Body (1875),
and Education
as a Science (1879), for the International Scientific
Series. In 1882
he published James Mill, a Biography, and John Stuart
Mill: a
Criticism, with Personal Recollections. In 1881 he was elected
Lord Rector of
the University of Aberdeen, and this honor was renewed
in 1884, in
which year he published Practical Essays.
Bainham
(James), martyr. He married the widow of Simon Fish, author
of the
Supplycacion of Beggars, an attack upon the clergy of the
period. In 1531
he was accused of heresy, having among other things
denied
transubstantiation, the confessional, and "the power of the
keys." It
was asserted that he had said that he would as lief pray
to his wife as
to "our lady," and that Christ was but a man. This
he denied, but
admitted holding the salvation of unbelievers. He was
burnt
Baissac
(Jules), French littérateur, b. Vans, 1827, author of several
studies in
philology and mythology. In 1878 he published Les Origines
de la Religion
in three volumes, which have the honor of being put
upon the Roman
Index. This was followed by l'Age de Dieu, a study
of cosmical
periods and the feast of Easter. In 1882 he began to
publish
Histoire de la Diablerie Chrétienne, the first part of which
is devoted to
the person and "personnel" of the devil.
Bakunin
(Mikhail Aleksandrovich), Russian Nihilist, b. Torshok
(Tver) 1814, of
an ancient aristocratic family. He was educated at
became embued
with revolutionary ideas. He went to
studied the
Hegelian philosophy, and published some philosophical
writings under
the name of Jules Elisard. In '43 he visited
became a
disciple of Proudhon. In '48 he was expelled from France
at the demand
of
silver roubles
on his head, went to
insurrectionary
government. He was arrested and condemned to death,
May '50, but
his sentence was commuted to imprisonment for life. He
escaped into
but was handed
over to
years' penal
servitude he escaped, travelled over a thousand miles
under extreme
hardship, reached the sea and sailed to
sailed to
he published
the Kolokol. He took part in the establishment of the
International
Society, but being at issue with Karl Marx abandoned
that body in
1873. He died at
work on God and
the State, both being vigorously attacked. Laveleye
writes of him
as "the apostle of universal destruction."
Ball (William
Platt), b. at
than teach
religious doctrines. Matriculated at
1866. Taught
pyrotechny in the Sultan's service 1870-71. Received
the order of
the Medjidieh after narrow escape from death by the
bursting of a
mortar. Upon his return published Poems from Turkey
(1872). Mr.
Ball has contributed to the National Reformer since 1878
and since 1884
has been on the staff of the Freethinker. He has
published
pamphlets on Religion in Schools, the Ten Commandments
and Mrs
Besant's Socialism, and has compiled with Mr. Foote the
Bible Handbook.
Mr. Ball is a close thinker and a firm supporter of
Evolutional
Malthusianism, which he has ably defended in the pages
of Progress. He
has of late been engaged upon the question: Are the
Effects of Use
and Disuse Inherited?
Ballance
(John),
March 1839.
Going out to
the Wanganui
Herald. He entered Parliament in 1875 and became Colonial
Treasurer in
'78. With Sir Robert Stout he has been a great support
to the
Freethought cause in
Baltzer
(Wilhelm Eduard). German rationalist, b. 24 Oct. 1814, at
Hohenleine in
resigned and
founded at Nordhausen in 1847 a free community. He took
part in the
Parliament of
of Apollonius
of Tyana, and is the author of a history of religion
and numerous
other works. Died
Bancel
(François Désiré). French politician, b. Le Mastre,
Legislative
Assembly. After the coup d'état he retired to
where he became
Professor at the University. In 1869 he was elected
deputy at
on Rationalism
by Ausonio Franchi, and wrote on Mysteries, 1871,
besides many
political works. Died
Barbier (
and Tylor. Died
1883.
Barbier
d'Aucour (Jean). French critic and academician, b. Langres,
1642. Most of
his writings are directed against the Jesuits. Died
Barlow
(George). Poet, b. in
Under the Dawn
and Poems, Real and Ideal, he gives utterance to many
Freethought
sentiments.
Barlow (Joel).
American statesman, writer and poet, b. Reading,
revolutionary
war, became a chaplain, but resigned that profession,
taking to
literature. In
Privileged
Orders. In
and contributed
to the political literature of the Revolution. Paine
entrusted him
with the MS. of the first part of the Age of Reason. His
chief work is
entitled the Columbiad, 1808. He was sent as minister
to
retreat from
Barni (Jules
Romain). French philosophic writer, b. Lille, 1 June,
1818. He became
secretary to Victor Cousin, and translated the works
of Kant into
French. He contributed to La Liberté de Penser (1847-51)
and to l'Avenir
(1855). During the Empire he lived in Switzerland
and published
Martyrs de la Libre Pensée (1862), La Morale dans
la Démocratie
(1864), and a work on the French Moralists of the
Eighteenth
Century (1873). He was elected to the National Assembly,
1872; and to
the Chamber of Deputies, 1876. Died at Mers, 4 July,
1878. A statue
is erected to him at
Barnout
(Hippolyte). French architect and writer, b. Paris 1816,
published a
Rational Calendar 1859 and 1860. In May 1870 he established
a journal
entitled L'Athée, the Atheist, which the clerical journals
declared drew
God's vengeance upon
work on aerial
navigation.
Barot (François
Odysse). French writer, b. at Mirabeau 1830. He
has been a journalist
on several Radical papers, was secretary to
Gustave
Flourens, and has written on the Birth of Jesus (1864) and
Contemporary
Literature in
Barrett (Thomas
Squire). Born
grandfathers
being ministers of that body; educated at Queenwood
College,
obtained diploma of Associate in Arts from
in Natural
Science and Mathematics, contributed to the National
Reformer
between 1865 and 1870, published an acute examination of
Gillespie's argument,
à priori, for the existence of God (1869),
which in 1871
reached a second edition. He also wrote A New View
of Causation
(1871), and an Introduction to Logic and Metyphysics
(1877). Mr.
Barrett has been hon. sec. of the
Society, and
edited a short-lived publication, The Present Day, 1886.
Barrier (F.
M.). French Fourierist, b. Saint Etienne 1815, became
professor of
medicine at
and Humanity (
and an
abridgment of this entitled Catechism of Liberal and Rational
Socialism. Died
Montfort-L'Amaury 1870.
Barrillot
(François). French author, b. of poor parents at
1818. An orphan
at seven years of age, he learnt to read from shop
signs, and
became a printer and journalist. Many of his songs and
satires
acquired popularity. He has also wrote a letter to Pope Pius
IX. on the
OEcumenical Council (1871), signed Jean Populus, and a
philosophical
work entitled Love is God. Died at
Barthez (Paul
Joseph), French physician, b.
friend of
D'Alembert, he became associate editor of the Journal des
Savants and
Encyclopédie Méthodique. He was made consulting physician
to the king and
a councillor of State. Shown by the Archbishop of
Sens a number
of works relating to the rites of his see he said,
"These are
the ceremonies of Sens, but can you show me the sense
[Sens] of
ceremonies." His principal work is New Elements of the
Science of
Basedow (Johann
Bernhard), German Rationalist and educational reformer,
b. at
professor at
the
Altona,
1761-1768. While here he published Philalethea, the Grounds of
Religion, and
other heterodox works, which excited so much prejudice
that he was in
danger of being stoned. He devoted much attention to
improving
methods of teaching. Died at
Baskerville
(John), famous printer, b. Sion Hill, Wolverley,
Worcestershire,
first a
stone-mason, then made money as an artistic japanner, and
devoted it to
perfecting the art of type-founding and printing. As
a
printer-publisher he produced at his own risk beautiful editions
of Milton,
Addison, Shaftesbury, Congreve, Virgil, Horace, Lucretius,
Terence, etc.
He was made printer to
once visited
him and was "shocked at his infidelity" (!) He died
designed a
monumental urn with this inscription: "Stranger, beneath
this cone in
unconsecrated ground a friend to the liberties of
mankind
directed his body to be inurned. May the example contribute
to emancipate
thy mind from the idle fears of superstition and the
wicked arts of
priesthood." His will expresses the utmost contempt
for
Christianity. His type was appropriately purchased to produce a
complete
edition of Voltaire.
Bassus
(Aufidus). An Epicurean philosopher and friend of Seneca in
the time of
Nero. Seneca praises his patience and courage in the
presence of
death.
Bate
(Frederick), Socialist, author of The Student 1842, a drama
in which the
author's sceptical views are put forward. Mr. Bate
was one of the
founders of the social experiment at New Harmony,
now Queenswood
College, Hants, and engraved a view representing the
Owenite scheme
of community.
Baudelaire
(Charles Pierre), French poet, b. Paris, 9 April 1821,
the son of a
distinguished friend of Cabanis and Condorcet. He
first became
famous by the publication of Fleurs du Mal, 1857, in
which appeared
Les Litanies de Satan. The work was prosecuted and
suppressed.
Baudelaire translated some of the writings of E. A. Poe,
a poet whom he
resembled much in life and character. The divine
beauty of his
face has been celebrated by the French poet, Théodore
de Banville,
and his genius in some magnificent stanzas by the English
poet, Algernon
Swinburne. Died Paris 31 Aug. 1867.
Baudon (P. L.),
French author of a work on the Christian Superstition,
published at
Brussels in 1862 and dedicated to Bishop Dupanloup under
the pseudonym
of "Aristide."
Bauer (Bruno),
one of the boldest biblical critics of Germany,
b. Eisenberg, 6
Sept. 1809. Educated at the University of Berlin,
in 1834 he
received a professorship of theology. He first attained
celebrity by a
review of the Life of Jesus by Strauss (1835). This
was followed by
his Journal of Speculative Theology and Critical
Exposition of
the Religion of the Old Testament. He then proceeded
to a Review of
the Gospel History, upon the publication of which
(1840) he was
deprived of his professorship at Bonn. To this followed
Christianity
Unveiled (1843), which was destroyed at Zurich before
its
publication. This work continued his opposition to religion,
which was
carried still further in ironical style in his Proclamation
of the Day of
Judgement concerning Hegel the Atheist. Bauer's heresy
deepened with
age, and in his Review of the Gospels and History of
their Origin
(1850), to which Apostolical History is a supplement,
he attacked the
historical truth of the New Testament narratives. In
his Review of
the Epistles attributed to St. Paul (1852) he tries to
show that the
first four epistles, which had hardly ever before been
questioned,
were not written by Paul, but are the production of the
second century.
In his Christ and the Cæsars he shows the influence
of Seneca and
Greco-Roman thought upon early Christianity. He died
near Berlin, 13
April, 1882.
Bauer (Edgar),
b. Charlottenburg, 7 Oct. 1820, brother of the
preceding,
collaborated in some of his works. His brochure entitled
Bruno Bauer and
his Opponents (1842) was seized by the police. For
his next
publication, The Strife of Criticism with Church and State
(1843), he was
imprisoned for four years. He has also written on
English
freedom, Capital, etc.
Baume-Desdossat
(Jacques François, de la), b. 1705, a Canon of
Avignon who
wrote La Christiade (1753), a satire on the gospels,
in which Jesus
is tempted by Mary Magdalene. It was suppressed by
the French
Parliament and the author fined. He died 30 April, 1756.
Baur (Ferdinand
Christian von), distinguished theological critic, b. 21
June, 1792,
near Stuttgart. His father was a clergyman. He was educated
at Tübingen,
where in 1826 he became professor of Church history. Baur
is the author
of numerous works on dogmatic and historic theology, in
which he
subverts all the fundamental positions of Christianity. He was
an Hegelian
Pantheist. Among his more important works are Christianity
and the Church
in the First Three Centuries and Paul: His Life and
Works. These
are translated into English. He acknowledges only four
of the epistles
of Paul and the Revelation as genuine products of
the apostolic
age, and shows how very far from simplicity were the
times and
doctrines of primitive Christianity. After a life of great
literary
activity he died at Tübingen, 2 Dec. 1860.
Bayle (Pierre),
learned French writer, b. 18 Nov. 1647, at Carlat,
France, where
his father was a Protestant minister. He was converted
to Romanism
while studying at the Jesuit College, Toulouse, 1669. His
Romanism only
lasted seventeen months. He abjured, and fled to
Switzerland,
becoming a sceptic, as is evident from Thoughts on the
Comet, in which
he compares the supposed mischiefs of Atheism with
those of
fanaticism, and from many articles in his famous Dictionnaire
Critique, a
work still of value for its curious learning and shrewd
observation. In
his journal Nouvelles de la République des Lettres
he advocates
religious toleration on the ground of the difficulty of
distinguishing
truth from error. His criticism of Maimbourg's History
of Calvinism
was ordered to be burnt by the hangman. Jurieu persecuted
him, and he was
ordered to be more careful in preparing the second
edition of his
dictionary. He died at Rotterdam, 28 Dec. 1706. Bayle
has been called
the father of free discussion in modern times.
Bayrhoffer
(Karl Theodor), German philosopher, b. Marburg, 14 Oct.,
1812, wrote The
Idea and History of Philosophy (1838), took part in
the revolution
of '48, emigrated to America, and wrote many polemical
works. Died
near Monroe, Wisconsin, 3 Feb. 1888.
Beauchamp
(Philip). See Bentham and Grote.
Beausobre
(Louis de), b. at Berlin, 22 Aug. 1730, was adopted by
Frederick the
Great out of esteem for his father, Isaac Beausobre,
the author of
the History of Manicheanism. He was educated first at
Frankfort-on-Oder,
then at Paris. He wrote on the scepticism of the
wise
(Pyrrhonisme du Sage, Berlin, 1754), a work condemned to be burnt
by the
Parliament of Paris. He also wrote anonymously The Dreams of
Epicurus, and
an essay on Happiness (Berlin, 1758), reprinted with
the Social
System of Holbach in 1795. Died at Berlin, 3 Dec. 1783.
Bebel
(Ferdinand August). German Socialist, b. Cologne, 22
Feb. 1840.
Brought up as a turner in Leipsic. Since '63, he became
distinguished
as an exponent of social democracy, and was elected to
the German
Reichstag in '71. In the following year he was condemned (6
March) to two
years' imprisonment for high treason. He was re-elected
in '74. His
principal work is Woman in the Past, Present and Future
which is
translated by H. B. A. Walther, 1885. He has also written on
the Mohammedan
Culture Period (1884) and on Christianity and Socialism.
Beccaria
(Bonesana Cesare), an Italian marquis and writer, b. at Milan,
15 March, 1738.
A friend of Voltaire, who praised his treatise on
Crimes and
Punishments (1769), a work which did much to improve the
criminal codes
of Europe. Died Milan, 28 Nov. 1794.
Beesly (Edward
Spencer), Positivist, b. Feckenham, Worcestershire,
1831. Educated
at Wadham College, Oxford, where he took B.A. in 1854,
and M.A. in
'57. Appointed Professor of History, University College,
London, in
1860. He is one of the translators of Comte's System of
Positive
Polity, and has published several pamphlets on political
and social
questions.
Beethoven
(Ludwig van), one of the greatest of musical composers,
b. Bonn 16 Dec.
1770. His genius early displayed itself, and at the
age of five he
was set to study the works of Handel and Bach. His many
compositions
are the glory of music. They include an opera "Fidelio,"
two masses,
oratorios, symphonies, concertos, overtures and sonatas,
and are
characterised by penetrating power, rich imagination, intense
passion, and
tenderness. When about the age of forty he became totally
deaf, but
continued to compose till his death at Vienna, 26 March,
1827. He
regarded Goethe with much the same esteem as Wagner showed
for
Schopenhauer, but he disliked his courtliness. His Republican
sentiments are
well known, and Sir George Macfarren, in his life in
the Imperial
Dictionary of Universal Biography, speaks of him as a
"Freethinker,"
and says the remarkable mass in C. "might scarcely
have proceeded
from an entirely orthodox thinker." Sir George Grove,
in his
Dictionary of Music and Musicians, says: "Formal religion he
apparently had
none," and "the Bible does not appear to have been one
of his favorite
books." At the end of his arrangement of "Fidelio"
Moscheles had
written, "Fine. With God's help." To this Beethoven
added, "O
man, help thyself."
Bekker
(Balthasar), Dutch Rationalist, b. Metslawier (Friesland)
20 March, 1634.
He studied at Gronigen, became a doctor of divinity,
and lived at
Francker, but was accused of Socinianism, and had to fly
to Amsterdam,
where he raised another storm by his World Bewitched
(1691), a work
in which witchcraft and the power of demons are
denied. His
book, which contains much curious information, raised
a host of
adversaries, and he was deposed from his place in the
Church. It
appeared in English in 1695. Died, Amsterdam, 11 June,
1698. Bekker
was remarkably ugly, and he is said to have "looked like
the devil,
though he did not believe in him."
Belinsky
(Vissarion Grigorevich), Russian critic, b. Pensa 1811,
educated at
Pensa and Moscow, adopted the Pantheistic philosophy of
Hegel and
Schelling. Died St. Petersburg, 28 May, 1848. His works
were issued in
12 volumes, 1857-61.
Bell (Thomas
Evans), Major in Madras Army, which he entered in 1842. He
was employed in
the suppression of Thugee. He wrote the Task of To-Day,
1852, and
assisted the Reasoner, both with pen and purse, writing over
the signature
"Undecimus." He contemplated selling his commission to
devote himself
to Freethought propaganda, but by the advice of his
friends was
deterred. He returned to India at the Mutiny. In January,
1861, he became
Deputy-Commissioner of Police at Madras. He retired
in July, 1865,
and has written many works on Indian affairs. Died 12
Sept. 1887.
Bell (William
S.), b. in Allegheny city, Pennsylvania, 10
Feb. 1832.
Brought up as a Methodist minister, was denounced for
mixing politics
with religion, and for his anti-slavery views. In
1873 he
preached in the Universalist Church of New Bedford, but in
Dec. '74,
renounced Christianity and has since been a Freethought
lecturer. He
has published a little book on the French Revolution,
and some
pamphlets.
Bender
(Wilhelm), German Rationalist, professor of theology at Bonn,
b. 15 Jan.
1845, who created a sensation at the Luther centenary,
1883, by
declaring that the work of the Reformation was incompleted
and must be
carried on by the Rationalists.
Bennett (De
Robigne Mortimer), founder and editor of the
Truthseeker, b.
of poor parents, Springfield (N.Y.), 23 Dec. 1818. At
the age of
fifteen he joined the Shaker Society in New Lebanon. Here
he stayed
thirteen years and then married. Having lost faith in the
Shaker creed,
he went to Louisville, Kentucky, where he started a
drug store. The
perusal of Paine, Volney, and similar works made him
a Freethinker.
In 1873, his letters to a local journal in answer to
some ministers
having been refused, he resolved to start a paper of
his own. The
result was the Truthseeker, which in January, 1876 became
a weekly, and
has since become one of the principal Freethought organs
in America. In
1879 he was sentenced to thirteen months' imprisonment
for sending
through the post a pamphlet by Ezra H. Heywood on the
marriage
question. A tract, entitled An Open Letter to Jesus Christ,
was read in
court to bias the jury. A petition bearing 200,000
names was
presented to President Hayes asking his release, but was
not acceded to.
Upon his release his admirers sent him for a voyage
round the
world. He wrote A Truthseeker's Voyage Round the World,
Letters from
Albany Penitentiary, Answers to Christian Questions and
Arguments, two
large volumes on The Gods, another on the World's Sages,Infidels and Thinkers,
and published his discussions with Humphrey, Mair, and Teed, and numerous
tracts. He died 6 Dec. 1882.
Bentham
(Jeremy), writer on ethics, jurisprudence, and political
economy, b. 15
Feb. 1748. A grand uncle named Woodward was the
publisher of
Tindal's Christianity as Old as the Creation. Was educated
at Westminster
and Oxford, where he graduated M.A. 1767. Bentham
is justly
regarded as the father of the school of philosophical
Radicalism. In
philosophy he is the great teacher of Utilitarianism;
as a jurist he
did much to disclose the defects of and improve our
system of law.
Macaulay says he "found jurisprudence a gibberish and
left it a
science." His most pronounced Freethought work was that
written in
conjunction with Grote, published as An Analysis of the
Influence of
Natural Religion, by Philip Beauchamp, 1822. Among his
numerous other
works we can only mention Deontology, or the Science
of Mortality,
an exposition of utilitarianism;
and its
Catechism Examined; Not Paul, but Jesus, published under the
pseudonym of
Gamaliel Smith. Died 6 June, 1832, leaving his body for
the purposes of
science.
Béranger (Jean
Pierre de), celebrated French lyrical poet,
b. Paris, 19
Aug. 1780. His satire on the Bourbons twice ensured
for him
imprisonment. He was elected to the Constituant Assembly
1848. Béranger
has been compared not inaptly to Burns. All his songs
breathe the
spirit of liberty, and several have been characterised
as impious. He
died 16 July, 1857.
Bergel
(Joseph), Jewish Rationalist, author of Heaven and Its Wonders,
Leipsic, 1881,
and Mythology of the Ancient Hebrews, 1882.
Berger (Moriz),
author of a work on Materialism in Conflict with
Spiritualism
and Idealism, Trieste, 1883.
Bergerac de
(Savinien Cyrano). See Cyrano.
Bergk (Johann
Adam), German philosopher, b. Hainechen, Zeitz, 27 June,
1769; became a
private teacher at Leipsic and wrote many works, both
under his own
name and pseudonyms. He published the Art of Thinking,
Leipsic, 1802,
conducted the Asiatic Magazine, 1806, and wrote under
the name of
Frey the True Religion, "recommended to rationalists
and destined
for the Radical cure of supernaturalists, mystics,
etc." Died
Leipsic, 27 Oct. 1834.
Bergk
(Theodor), German humanist, son of the above, b. Leipsic,
22 May, 1812,
author of a good History of Greek Literature, 1872.
Berigardus (Claudius),
or Beauregard (Claude Guillermet), French
physician and
philosopher, b. at Moulins about 1591. He became a
professor at
Pisa from 1628 till 1640, and then went to Padua. His
Circulus
Pisanus, published in 1643, was considered an Atheistic
work. In the
form of a dialogue he exhibits the various hypotheses
of the
formation of the world. The work was forbidden and is very
rare. His book
entitled Dubitationes in Dialogum Galilæi, also brought
on him a charge
of scepticism. Died in 1664.
Berkenhout (Dr.
John), physician and miscellaneous writer, b. 1731,
the son of a
Dutch merchant who settled at Leeds. In early life he
had been a
captain both in the Prussian and English service, and
in 1765 took
his M.D. degree at Leyden. He published many books on
medical
science, a synopsis of the natural history of
and Ireland,
and several humorous pieces, anonymously. His principal
work is
entitled Biographia Literaria, a biographical history of
English
literature, 1777. Throughout the work he loses no opportunity
of displaying
his hostility to the theologians, and is loud in his
praises of
Voltaire. Died 3 April, 1791.
Berlioz (Louis
Hector). The most original of French musical composers,
b. Isère, 11
Dec. 1803. He obtained fame by his dramatic symphony
of Romeo and
Juliet (1839), and was made chevalier of the Legion
of Honor. Among
his works is one on the Infancy of Christ. In his
Memoirs he
relates how he scandalised Mendelssohn "by laughing at
the
Bible." Died Paris, 9 March, 1869.
Bernard (Claude),
French physiologist, b. Saint Julien 12 July,
1813. Went to
Paris 1832, studied medicine, became member of the
Institute and
professor at the Museum of Natural History, wrote
La Science
Experimentale, and other works on physiology. Died 10
Feb. 1878, and
was buried at the expense of the Republic. Paul Bert
calls him the
introducer of determinism in the domain of physiology.
Bernier (Abbé).
See Holbach.
Bernier
(François), French physician and traveller, b. Angers about
1625. He was a
pupil of Gassendi, whose works he abridged, and he
defended
Descartes against the theologians. He is known as le joli
philsophe. In
1654 he went to Syria and Egypt, and from thence to
India, where he
became physician to Aurungzebe. On his return he
published an
account of his travels and of the Empire of the Great
Mogul, and died
at Paris 22 Sept. 1688.
Bernstein
(Aaron), a rationalist, b. of Jewish parents Dantzic
1812. His first
work was a translation of the Song of Songs, published
under the
pseudonym of A. Rebenstein (1834). He devoted himself
to natural
science and published works on The Rotation of Planets,
Humboldt and
the Spirit of the Time, etc. His essay on The Origin of
the Legends of
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob was translated by a German
lady and
published by Thomas Scott of Ramsgate (1872). Died Berlin,
12 Feb. 1884.
Berquin (Louis
de), French martyr, b. in Artois, 1489. Erasmus,
his friend,
says his great crime was openly professing hatred of
the monks. In
1523 his works were ordered to be burnt, and he was
commanded to
abjure his heresies. Sentence of perpetual banishment
was pronounced
on him on April 16, 1529. He immediately appealed to
the Parliament.
His appeal was heard and rejected on the morning of
the 17th. The
Parliament reformed the judgment and condemned him to
be burnt alive,
and the sentence was carried out on the same afternoon
at the Place de
la Grève. He died with great constancy and resolution.
Bert (Paul),
French scientist and statesman, b. at Auxerre, 17
Oct. 1833. In
Paris he studied both law and medicine, and after
being Professor
in the Faculty of Science at Bordeaux, he in 1869
obtained the
chair of physiology in the Faculty of Science at Paris,
and
distinguished himself by his scientific experiments. In '70 he
offered his
services to the Government of National Defence, and in
'72 was elected
to the National Assembly, where he signalised himself
by his Radical
opinions. Gambetta recognised his worth and made him
Minister of
Public Instruction, in which capacity he organised French
education on a
Secular basis. His First Year of Scientific Instruction
is almost
universally used in the French primary schools. It has been
translated into
English by Josephine Clayton (Madame Paul Bert). His
strong
anti-clerical views induced much opposition. He published
several
scientific and educational works and attacked The Morality of
the Jesuits,
'80. In '86 he was appointed French Resident Minister at
Tonquin, where
he died 11 Nov. '86. His body was brought over to France
and given a
State funeral, a pension being also accorded to his widow.
Bertani
(Agostino), Italian patriot, b. 19 Oct. 1812, became a
physician at
Genoa, took part with Garibaldi and Mazzini, organising
the ambulance
services. A declared Freethinker, he was elected deputy
to the Italian
Parliament. Died Rome 30 April, '86.
Berti
(Antonio), Italian physician, b. Venice 20 June, 1816. Author
of many
scientific works, member of the Venice Municipal Council and
of the Italian
Senate. Died Venice 24 March, 1879.
Bertillon
(Louis Adolphe), French Anthropologist and physician,
b. Paris 1
April, 1821. His principal work is a statistical study
of the French
population, Paris '74. He edits in conjunction with
A. Hovelacque
and others, the Dictionary of the Anthropological
Sciences ('83
etc.) His sons, Jacques (b. '51) and Alphonse (b. '53),
prosecute
similar studies.
Bertrand de
Saint-Germain (Guillaume Scipion), French physician,
b. Puy-en-Velay
25 Oct. 1810. Became M.D. 1840, wrote on The
Original
Diversity of Human Races (1847), and a materialistic work
on
Manifestation of Life and Intelligence through Organisation,
1848. Has also
written on Descartes as a Physiologist, 1869.
Berwick (George
J.) M.D., appointed surgeon to the East India Company
in 1828,
retired in '52. Author of Awas-i-hind, or a Voice from the
Ganges; being a
solution of the true source of Christianity. By an
Indian Officer;
London, 1861. Also of a work on The Forces of the
Universe, '70.
Died about 1872.
Besant (Annie)
née Wood. B. London, 1 Oct. 1847. Educated in
Evangelicalism
by Miss Marryat, sister of novelist, but turned
to the High
Church by reading Pusey and others. In "Holy Week"
of 1866 she
resolved to write the story of the week from the
gospel. Their
contradictions startled her but she regarded her doubts
as sin. In Dec.
'67 she married the Rev. F. Besant, and read and
wrote
extensively. The torment a child underwent in whooping-cough
caused doubts
as to the goodness of God. A study of Greg's Creed
of Christendom
and Arnold's Literature and Dogma increased her
scepticism. She
became acquainted with the Rev. C. Voysey and Thomas
Scott, for whom
she wrote an Essay on the Deity of Jesus of Nazareth,
"by the
wife of a beneficed clergyman." This led to her husband
insisting on
her taking communion or leaving. She chose the latter
course, taking
by agreement her daughter with her. Thrown on her own
resources, she
wrote further tracts for Mr. Scott, reprinted in My Path
to Atheism
('77). Joined the National Secular Society, and in '74 wrote
in the National
Reformer over the signature of "Ajax." Next year she
took to the
platform and being naturally eloquent soon won her way to
the front rank
as a Freethought lecturess, and became joint editor
of the National
Reformer. Some lectures on the French Revolution
were
republished in book form. In April, '77, she was arrested
with Mr.
Bradlaugh for publishing the Fruits of Philosophy. After a
brilliant
defence, the jury exonerated the defendants from any corrupt
motives, and
although they were sentenced the indictment was quashed
in Feb. '78,
and the case was not renewed. In May, '78, a petition
in Chancery was
presented to deprive Mrs. Besant of her child on the
ground of her
Atheistic and Malthusian views. Sir G. Jessell granted
the petition.
In '80 Mrs. Besant matriculated at the London University
and took 1st
B.Sc. with honors in '82. She has debated much and issued
many pamphlets
to be found in Theological Essays and Debates. She
wrote the
second part of the Freethinkers' Text Book dealing with
Christian
evidence; has written on the Sins of the Church, 1886, and
the Evolution
of Society. She has translated Jules Soury's Religion
of Israel, and
Jesus of the Gospels; Dr. L. Büchner on the Influence
of Heredity and
Mind in Animals, and from the fifteenth edition of
Force and
Matter. From '83 to '88 she edited Our Corner, and since
'85 has given
much time to Socialist propaganda, and has written many
Socialist
pamphlets. In Dec. '88, Mrs. Besant was elected a member
of the London
School Board.
Beverland
(Hadrianus), Dutch classical scholar and nephew of Isaac
Vossius, b.
Middleburg 1654. He took the degree of doctor of law and
became an
advocate, but devoted himself to literature. He was at the
university of
Oxford in 1672. His treatise on Original Sin, Peccatum
Originale
(Eleutheropoli, 1678), in which he contends that the sin
of Adam and Eve
was sexual inclination, caused a great outcry. It
was burnt,
Beverland was imprisoned and his name struck from the
rolls of Leyden
University. He wrote some other curious works and
died about
1712.
Bevington
(Louisa S.), afterwards Guggenberger; English poetess and
authoress of
Key Notes, 1879; Poems, Lyrics and Sonnets, '82; wrote
"Modern
Atheism and Mr. Mallock" in the Nineteenth Century (Oct. and
Dec. '79), and
on "The Moral Demerits of Orthodoxy" in Progress,
Sept. '84.
Beyle (Marie
Henri), French man of letters, famous under the
name of de
Stendhal, b. Grenoble, 23 Jan. 1783. Painter, soldier,
merchant and
consul, he travelled largely, a wandering life being
congenial to
his broad and sceptical spirit. His book, De l'Amour
is his most
notable work. He was an original and gifted critic and
romancer.
Balzac esteemed him highly. He died at Paris, 23 March,
1842. Prosper
Merimée has published his correspondence. One of his
sayings was
"Ce qui excuse Dieu, c'est qu'il n'existe pas"--God's
excuse is that
he does not exist.
Bianchi
(Angelo), known as Bianchi-Giovini (Aurelio) Italian man
of letters, b.
of poor parents at Como, 25 Nov. 1799. He conducted
several papers
in various parts of Piedmont and Switzerland. His Life
of Father Paoli
Sarpi, 1836, was put on the Index, and thenceforward
he was in
constant strife with the Roman Church. For his attacks on
the clergy in
Il Republicano, at Lugano, he was proscribed, and had to
seek refuge at
Zurich, 1839. He went thence to Milan and there wrote
a History of
the Hebrews, a monograph on Pope Joan, and an account
of the
Revolution. His principal works are the History of the Popes
until the great
schism of the West (Turin, 1850-64) and a Criticism
of the Gospels,
1853, which has gone through several editions. Died
16 May, 1862.
Biandrata or
Blandrata (Giorgio), Italian anti-trinitarian reformer,
b. Saluzzo
about 1515. Graduated in arts and medicine at Montpellier,
1533. He was
thrown into the prison of the Inquisition at Pavia,
but contrived
to escape to Geneva, where he become obnoxious to
Calvin. He left
Geneva in 1558 and went to Poland where he became a
leader of the
Socinian party. He was assassinated 1591.
Bichat (Marie
François Xavier), a famous French anatomist and
physiologist,
b. Thoirette (Jura), 11 Nov. 1771. His work on the
Physiology of
Life and Death was translated into English. He died a
martyr to his
zeal for science, 22 July, 1802.
Biddle or Bidle
(John), called the father of English Unitarianism,
b.
Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire, 14 Jan. 1615. He took his
M.A. degree at
Oxford, 1641, and became master of the Gloucester
Grammar School,
but lost the situation for denying the Trinity. He
was also
imprisoned there for some time, and afterwards cited at
Westminster. He
appealed to the public in defence, and his pamphlet
was ordered to
be burnt by the hangman, 6 Sept. 1647. He was detained
in prison till
1652, after which he published several pamphlets, and
was again
imprisoned in 1654. In Oct. 1655, Cromwell banished him to
the Scilly
Isles, making him an allowance. He returned to London 1658,
but after the
publication of the Acts of Uniformity was again seized,
and died in
prison 22 Sept. 1662.
Bierce (M. H.)
see Grile (Dod).
Billaud-Varenne
(Jean Nicolas), French conventionalist b. La Rochelle,
23 April, 1756.
About 1785 became advocate to Parliament; denounced
the government
and clergy 1789. Proposed abolition of the monarchy
1 July, 1791,
and wrote Elements of Republicanism, 1793. Withdrew
from
Robespierre after the feast of the Supreme Being, saying "Thou
beginnest to
sicken me with thy Supreme Being." Was exiled 1 April,
1795, and died
at St. Domingo, 3 June, 1819.
Bion, of
Borysthenes, near the mouth of the Dneiper. A Scythian
philosopher who
flourished about 250 B.C. He was sold as a slave
to a
rhetorician, who afterwards gave him freedom and made him his
heir. Upon this
he went to Athens and applied himself to the study
of philosophy.
He had several teachers, but attached himself to
Theodorus the
Atheist. He was famous for his knowledge of music,
poetry, and
philosophy. Some shrewd sayings of his are preserved,
as that
"only the votive tablets of the preserved are seen in the
temples, not
those of the drowned" and "it is useless to tear our
hair when in
grief since sorrow is not cured by baldness."
Birch (William
John), English Freethinker, b. London 4
Jan. 1811.
Educated at Baliol College, Oxford, graduated M.A. at
New Inn Hall.
Author of An Inquiry into the Philosophy and Religion
of Shakespeare,
1848; An Inquiry into the Philosophy and Religion
of the Bible,
1856; this work was translated into Dutch by "Rudolf
Charles;"
Paul an Idea, not a Fact; and the Real and Ideal. In the
stormy time of
'42 Mr. Birch did much to support the prosecuted
publications.
He brought out the Library of Reason and supported
The Reasoner
and Investigator with both pen and purse. Mr. Birch has
resided much in
Italy and proved himself a friend to Italian unity
and Freedom. He
is a member of the Italian Asiatic Society. Mr. Birch
has been a
contributor to Notes and Queries and other journals,
and has devoted
much attention to the early days of Christianity,
having many
manuscripts upon the subject.
Bithell
(Richard), Agnostic, b. Lewes, Sussex, 22 March 1821, of pious
parents. Became
teacher of mathematics and chemistry. Is Ph.D. of
Gottingen and
B.Sc. of London University. In '65 he entered the
service of the
Rothschilds. Has written Creed of a Modern Agnostic,
1883; and
Agnostic Problems, 1887.
Björnson
(Björnstjerne), Norwegian writer, b. Quickne 8 Dec. 1832. His
father was a
Lutheran clergyman. Has done much to create a national
literature for
Norway. For his freethinking opinions he was obliged
to leave his
country and reside in Paris. Many of his tales have been
translated into
English. In 1882 Björnson published at Christiania,
with a short
introduction, a resumé of C. B. Waite's History of the
Christian
Religion, under the title of Whence come the Miracles of the
New Testament?
This was the first attack upon dogmatic Christianity
published in
Norway, and created much discussion. The following year
he published a
translation of Colonel Ingersoll's article in the North
American Review
upon the "Christian Religion," with a long preface,
in which he
attacks the State Church and Monarchy. The translation
was entitled
Think for Yourself. The first edition rapidly sold out
and a second
one appeared. He has since, both in speech and writing,
repeatedly
avowed his Freethought, and has had several controversies
with the
clergy.
Blagosvyetlov
(Grigorevich E.), Russian author, b. in the Caucasus,
1826. Has
written on Shelley, Buckle, and Mill, whose Subjection
of Women he
translated into Russian. He edited a magazine Djelo
(Cause). Died
about 1885.
Blanqui (Louis
Auguste), French politician, b. near Nice, 7 Feb. 1805,
a younger
brother of Jerome Adolphe Blanqui, the economist. Becoming
a Communist,
his life was spent in conspiracy and imprisonment
under
successive governments. In '39 he was condemned to death, but
his sentence
commuted to imprisonment for life, and was subject to
brutal
treatment till the revolution of '48 set him at liberty. He
was soon again
imprisoned. In '65 he wrote some remarkable articles
on Monotheism
in Le Candide. After the revolution of 4 Sept. '70,
Blanqui
demanded the suppression of worship. He was again imprisoned,
but was
liberated and elected member of the Commune, and arrested by
Thiers. In his
last imprisonment he wrote a curious book, Eternity
and the Stars,
in which he argues from the eternity and infinity of
matter. Died
Paris, 31 Dec. 1880. Blanqui took as his motto "Ni Dieu
ni
maître"--Neither God nor master.
Blasche
(Bernhard Heinrich), German Pantheist, b. Jena 9 April,
1776. His
father was a professor of theology and philosophy. He wrote
Kritik des
Modernen Geisterglaubens (Criticism of Modern Ghost Belief),
Philosophische
Unsterblichkeitslehre (Teaching of Philosophical
Immortality),
and other works. Died near Gotha 26 Nov. 1832.
Blignieres
(Célestin de), French Positivist, of the Polytechnic
school. Has
written a popular exposition of Positive philosophy and
religion, Paris
1857; The Positive Doctrine, 1867; Studies of Positive
Morality, 1868;
and other works.
Blind (Karl),
German Republican, b. Mannheim, 4 Sept. 1826. Studied
at Heidelberg
and Bonn. In 1848 he became a revolutionary leader
among the
students and populace, was wounded at Frankfort, and
proscribed. In
Sept. '48 he led the second republican revolution in
the Black
Forest. He was made prisoner and sentenced to eight year's
imprisonment.
In the spring of '49 he was liberated by the people
breaking open
his prison. Being sent on a mission to Louis Napoleon,
then president
of the French Republic at Paris, he was arrested and
banished from
France. He went to Brussels, but since '52 has lived
in in England,
where he has written largely on politics, history,
and mythology.
His daughter Mathilde, b. at Mannheim, opened her
literary career
by publishing a volume of poems in 1867 under the
name of Claude
Lake. She has since translated Straus's Old Faith and
the New, and
written the volumes on George Eliot and Madame Roland
in the Eminent
Women series.
Blount
(Charles), English Deist of noble family, b. at Holloway 27
April, 1654.
His father, Sir Henry Blount, probably shared in his
opinions, and
helped him in his anti-religious work, Anima Mundi,
1678. This work
Bishop Compton desired to see suppressed. In 1680 he
published Great
is Diana of the Ephesians, or the Origin of Idolatry,
and the two
first books of Apollonius Tyanius, with notes, in which
he attacks
priestcraft and superstition. This work was condemned and
suppressed.
Blount also published The Oracles of Reason, a number
of Freethought
Essays. By his Vindication of Learning and Liberty
of the Press,
and still more by his hoax on Bohun entitled William
and Mary
Conquerors, he was largely instrumental in doing away with
the censorship
of the press. He shot himself, it is said, because
he could not
marry his deceased wife's sister (August, 1693). His
miscellaneous
works were printed in one volume, 1695.
Blumenfeld (J.
C.), wrote The New Ecce Homo or the Self Redemption of
Man, 1839. He
is also credited with the authorship of The Existence of
Christ
Disproved in a series of Letters by "A German Jew," London,
1841.
Boerne (Ludwig),
German man of letters and politician, b. Frankfort
22 May, 1786.
In 1818 he gave up the Jewish religion, in which he had
been bred,
nominally for Protestantism, but really he had, like his
friend Heine,
become a Freethinker. He wrote many works in favor of
political
liberty and translated Lammenais' Paroles d'un Croyant. Died
12 Feb. 1837.
Bodin (Jean),
French political writer, b. Angers 1530. He studied
at Toulouse and
is said to have been a monk but turned to the law,
and became
secretary to the Duc d'Alençon. His book De la Republique
is highly
praised by Hallam, and is said to have contained the germ of
Montesquieu's
"Spirit of the Laws." He wrote a work on demonomania, in
which he seems
to have believed, but in his Colloquium Heptaplomeron
coloquies of
seven persons: a Catholic, a Lutheran, a Calvinist, a
Pagan, a
Muhammadan, a Jew, and a Deist, which he left in manuscript,
he put some
severe attacks on Christianity. Died of the plague at
Laon in 1596.
Boggis (John)
is mentioned by Edwards in his Gangrena, 1645, as an
Atheist and
disbeliever in the Bible.
Boichot (Jean
Baptiste), b. Villier sur Suize 20 Aug. 1820, entered
the army. In
'49 he was chosen representative of the people. After
the coup d'état
he came to England, returned to France in '54,
was arrested
and imprisoned at Belle Isle. Since then he has lived
at Brussels,
where he has written several works and is one of the
council of
International Freethinkers.
Boindin
(Nicolas) French litterateur, wit, playwright and academician,
b. Paris 29
May, 1676. He publicly professed Atheism, and resorted
with other
Freethinkers to the famous café Procope. There, in order to
speak freely,
they called the soul Margot, religion Javotte, liberty
Jeanneton, and
God M. de l'Etre. One day a spy asked Boindin, "Who
is this M. de
l'Etre with whom you seem so displeased?" "Monsieur,"
replied
Boindin, "he is a police spy." Died 30 Nov. 1751. His corpse
was refused
"Christian burial."
Boissiere (Jean
Baptiste Prudence), French writer, b. Valognes
Dec. 1806, was
for a time teacher in England. He compiled an analogical
dictionary of
the French language. Under the name of Sièrebois he
has published
the Autopsy of the Soul and a work on the foundations
of morality,
which he traces to interest. He has also written a book
entitled The
Mechanism of Thought, '84.
Boissonade (J.
A.), author of The Bible Unveiled, Paris, 1871.
Boito (Arrigo),
Italian poet and musician, b. at Padua, whose opera
"Mefistofele,"
has created considerable sensation by its boldness.
Bolingbroke
(Henry Saint John) Lord, English statesman and philosopher,
b. at
Battersea, 1 Oct. 1672. His political life was a stormy
one. He was the
friend of Swift and of Pope, who in his Essay on Man
avowedly puts
forward the views of Saint John. He died at Battersea
12 Dec. 1751,
leaving by will his MSS. to David Mallet, who in 1754
published his
works, which included Essays Written to A. Pope, Esq.,
on Religion and
Philosophy, in which he attacks Christianity with
both wit and
eloquence. Bolingbroke was a Deist, believing in God
but scornfully
rejecting revelation. He much influenced Voltaire,
who regarded
him with esteem.
Bonavino
(Francesco Cristoforo) see Franchi (Ausonio).
Boni (Filippo
de), Italian man of letters, b. Feltre, 1820. Editor of
a standard
Biography of Artists, published at Venice, 1840. He also
wrote on the
Roman Church and Italy and on Reason and Dogma, Siena,
'66, and
contributed to Stefanoni's Libero Pensiero. De Boni was
elected deputy
to the Italian Parliament. He has written on "Italian
Unbelief in the
Middle Ages" in the Annuario Filosofico del Libero
Pensiero, '68.
Boniface VIII.,
Pope (Benedetto Gaetano), elected head of Christendom,
24 Dec. 1294.
During his quarrel with Philip the Fair of France charges
were sworn on
oath against Pope Boniface that he neither believed in
the Trinity nor
in the life to come, that he said the Virgin Mary
"was no
more a virgin than my mother"; that he did not observe the
fasts of the
Church, and that he spoke of the cardinals, monks,
and friars as
hypocrites. It was in evidence that the Pope had said
"God may
do the worst with me that he pleases in the future life; I
believe as
every educated man does, the vulgar believe otherwise. We
have to speak
as they do, but we must believe and think with the
few." Died
11 Oct. 1303.
Bonnycastle
(John), mathematician, b. Whitchurch, Bucks, about
1750. He wrote
several works on elementary mathematics and became
Professor of
mathematics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich,
where he died
15 May, 1821. He was a friend of Fuseli, and private
information
assures me he was a Freethinker.
Booms (Marinus
Adriaansz), Dutch Spinozist, a shoemaker by trade,
who wrote early
in the eighteenth century, and on 1 Jan. 1714,
was banished.
Bonnot de
Condillac (Etienne) see Condillac.
Bonstetten
(Karl Victor von), Swiss Deist, b. Berne, 3 Sept
1745.
Acquainted with Voltaire and Rousseau he went to Leyden and
England to
finish his education. Among his works are Researches on
the Nature and
Laws of the Imagination, 1807; and Studies on Man,
1821. Died
Geneva, 3 Feb. 1832.
Borde
(Frédéric), editor of La Philosophie de l'Avenir, Paris, 1875,
etc. Born La
Rochelle 1841. Has written on Liberty of Instruction, etc.
Born (Ignaz
von) baron, b. Carlsruhe, 26 Dec. 1742. Bred by the
Jesuits, he
became an ardent scientist and a favorite of the
Empress Marie
Theresa, under whose patronage he published works
on Mineralogy.
He was active as a Freemason, and Illuminati, and
published with
the name Joannes Physiophilus a stinging illustrated
satire entitled
Monchalogia, or the natural history of monks.
Bosc (Louis
Augustin Guillaume), French naturalist, b. Paris, 29
Jan. 1759; was
tutor and friend to Madame Roland whose Memoirs he
published. He
wrote many works on natural history. Died 10 July, 1828.
Boucher (E.
Martin), French writer, b. Beaulieu, 1809; contributed to
the Rationalist
of Geneva, where he died 1882. Author of a work on
Revelation and
Rationalism, entitled Search for the Truth, Avignon,
1884.
Bougainville
(Louis Antoine de) Count, the first French voyager
who made the
tour around the world; b. Paris, 11 Nov. 1729. Died 31
Aug. 1811. He
wrote an interesting account of his travels.
Bouillier
(Francisque), French philosopher, b. Lyons 12 July 1813, has
written several
works on psychology, and contributed to la Liberté de
Penser. His
principal work is a History of the Cartesian Philosophy. He
is a member of
the Institute and writes in the leading reviews.
Bouis
(Casimir), French journalist, b. Toulon 1848, edited La Libre
Pensée and
wrote a satire on the Jesuits entitled Calottes et Soutanes,
1870. Sent to
New Caledonia for his participation in the Commune, he
has since his
return published a volume of political verses entitled
Après le
Naufrage, After the Shipwreck, 1880.
Boulainvilliers
(Henri de), Comte de St. Saire, French historian and
philosopher, b.
11 Oct. 1658. His principal historical work is an
account of the
ancient French Parliaments. He also wrote a defence of
Spinozism under
pretence of a refutation of Spinoza, an analysis of
Spinoza's
Tractus Theologico-Politicus, printed at the end of Doubts
upon Religion,
Londres, 1767. A Life of Muhammad, the first European
work doing
justice to Islam, and a History of the Arabs also proceeded
from his pen,
and he is one of those to whom is attributed the treatise
with the title
of the Three Impostors, 1755. Died 23 Jan. 1722.
Boulanger
(Nicolas-Antoine), French Deist, b. 11 Nov. 1722. Died
16 Sept. 1759.
He was for some time in the army as engineer, and
afterwards
became surveyor of public works. After his death his works
were published
by D'Holbach who rewrote them. His principal works
are Antiquity
Unveiled and Researches on the Origin of Oriental
Despotism.
Christianity Unveiled, attributed to him and said by
Voltaire to
have been by Damilavile, was probably written by D'Holbach,
perhaps with
some assistance from Naigeon. It was burnt by order of
the French
Parliament 18 Aug. 1770. A Critical Examination of the
Life and Works
of St. Paul, attributed to Boulanger, was really made
up by d'Holbach
from the work of Annet. Boulanger wrote dissertations
on Elisha,
Enoch and St. Peter, and some articles for the Encyclopédie.
Bourdet (Dr.)
Eugene, French Positivist, b. Paris, 1818. Author of
several works
on medicine and Positivist philosophy and education.
Boureau-Deslands
(A. F.) See Deslandes.
Bourget (Paul),
French littérateur, b. at Amiens in 1852. Has made
himself famous
by his novels, essays on contemporary psychology,
studies of M.
Rénan, etc. He belongs to the Naturalist School, but
his methods are
less crude than those of some of his colleagues. His
insight is most
subtle, and his style is exquisite.
Boutteville
(Marc Lucien), French writer, professor at the Lycée
Bonaparte; has
made translations from Lessing and published an
able work on
the Morality of the Church and Natural Morality, 1866,
for which the
clergy turned him out of a professorship he held at
Sainte-Barbe.
Bovio
(Giovanni), Professor of Political Economy in the University
of Naples and
deputy to the Italian parliament; is an ardent
Freethinker.
Both in his writings and in parliament Prof. Bovio
opposes the
power of the Vatican and the reconciliation between
Church and
State. He has constantly advocated liberty of conscience
and has
promoted the institution of a Dante chair in the University
of Rome. He has
written a work on The History of Law, a copy of which
he presented to
the International Congress of Freethinkers, 1887.
Bowring (Sir
John, K.B., LL D.), politician, linguist and writer,
b. Exeter, 17
Oct., 1792. In early life a pupil of Dr. Lant
Carpenter and
later a disciple of Jeremy Bentham, whose principles
he maintained
in the Westminster Review, of which he was editor,
1825. Arrested
in France in 1822, after a fortnight's imprisonment
he was released
without trial. He published Bentham's Deontology
(1834), and
nine years after edited a complete collection of the
works of
Bentham. Returned to Parliament in '35, and afterwards was
employed in
important government missions. In '55 he visited Siam,
and two years
later published an account of The Kingdom and People
of Siam. He
translated Goethe, Schiller, Heine, and the poems of
many countries;
was an active member of the British Association and
of the Social
Science Association, and did much to promote rational
views on the
Sunday question. Died 23 Nov. 1872.
Boyle
(Humphrey), one of the men who left Leeds for the purpose of
serving in R.
Carlile's shop when the right of free publication was
attacked in
1821. Boyle gave no name, and was indicted and tried as
"a man
with name unknown" for publishing a blasphemous and seditious
libel. In his
defence he ably asserted his right to hold and publish
his opinions.
He read portions of the Bible in court to prove he was
justified in
calling it obscene. Upon being sentenced, 27 May, 1822,
to eighteen
months' imprisonment and to find sureties for five years,
he remarked
"I have a mind, my lord, that can bear such a sentence
with
fortitude."
Bradlaugh
(Charles). Born East London, 26 Sept. 1833. Educated
in Bethnal
Green and Hackney. He was turned from his Sunday-school
teachership and
from his first situation through the influence of the
Rev. J. G.
Packer, and found refuge with the widow of R. Carlile. In
Dec. 1850 he
entered the Dragoon Guards and proceeded to Dublin. Here
he met James
Thomson, the poet, and contracted a friendship which
lasted for many
years. He got his discharge, and in '53 returned to
London and
became a solicitor's clerk. He began to write and lecture
under the nom
de guerre of "Iconoclast," edited the Investigator, '59;
and had
numerous debates with ministers and others. In 1860 he began
editing the
National Reformer, which in '68-9 he successfully defended
against a
prosecution of the Attorney General, who wished securities
against
blasphemy. In '68 he began his efforts to enter Parliament,
and in 1880 was
returned for Northampton. After a long struggle
with the House,
which would not admit the Atheist, he at length took
his seat in
1885. He was four times re-elected, and the litigation
into which he
was plunged will become as historic as that of John
Wilkes.
Prosecuted in '76 for publishing The Fruits of Philosophy, he
succeeded in
quashing the indictment. Mr. Bradlaugh has had numerous
debates,
several of which are published. He has also written many
pamphlets, of
which we mention New Lives of Abraham, David, and
other saints,
Who was Jesus Christ? What did Jesus Teach? Has Man
a Soul, Is
there a God? etc. His Plea for Atheism reached its 20th
thousand in
1880. Mr. Bradlaugh has also published When were our
Gospels
Written?, 1867; Heresy, its Utility and Morality, 1870;
The Inspiration
of the Bible, 1873; The Freethinker's Text Book,
part i.,
dealing with natural religion, 1876; The Laws Relating to
Blasphemy and
Heresy, 1878; Supernatural and Rational Morality,
1886. In 1857
Mr. Bradlaugh commenced a commentary on the Bible,
entitled The
Bible, What is it? In 1865 this appeared in enlarged form,
dealing only
with the Pentateuch. In 1882 he published Genesis, Its
Authorship and
Authenticity. In Parliament Mr. Bradlaugh has become
a conspicuous
figure, and has introduced many important measures. In
1888 he
succeeded in passing an Oaths Bill, making affirmations
permissible
instead of oaths. His elder daughter, Alice, b. 30
April, 1856,
has written on Mind Considered as a Bodily Function,
1884. Died 2
Dec. 1888. His second daughter, Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner,
b. 31 March,
1858, has written "Princess Vera" and other stories,
"Chemistry
of Home," etc.
Brækstad (Hans
Lien), b. Throndhjem, Norway, 7 Sept. 1845. Has made
English
translations from Björnson, Asbjörnsen, Andersen, etc., and
has contributed
to Harper's Magazine and other periodical literature.
Brandes (Georg
Morris Cohen), Danish writer, by birth a Jew,
b. Copenhagen,
4 Feb. 1842. In 1869 he translated J. S. Mills'
Subjection of
Women, and in the following year took a doctor's
degree for a
philosophical treatise. His chief work is entitled the
Main Current of
Literature in the Nineteenth Century. His brother,
Dr. Edvard
Brandes, was elected to the Danish Parliament in 1881,
despite his
declaration that he did not believe either in the God of
the Christians
or of the Jews.
Bray (Charles),
philosophic writer, b. Coventry, 31 Jan. 1811. He was
brought up as
an Evangelical, but found his way to Freethought. Early
in life he took
an active part in promoting unsectarian education. His
first work
(1835) was on The Education of the Body. This was followed
by The
Education of the Feelings, of which there were several
editions. In
1836 he married Miss Hennell, sister of C. C. Hennell,
and took the
System of Nature and Volney's Ruins of Empires "to
enliven the
honeymoon." Among his friends was Mary Ann Evans ("George
Eliot"),
who accompanied Mr. and Mrs. Bray to Italy. His works on
The Philosophy
of Necessity (1841) and Cerebral Psychology (1875)
give the key to
all his thought. He wrote a number of Thomas Scott's
series of
tracts: Illusion and Delusion, The Reign of Law in Mind as
in Matter,
Toleration with remarks on Professor Tyndall's "Address,"
and a little
book, Christianity in the Light of our Present Knowledge
and Moral Sense
(1876). He also wrote A Manual of Anthropology and
similar works.
In a postscript to his last volume, Phases of Opinion
and Experience
During a Long Life, dated 18 Sept. 1884, he stated
that he has no
hope or expectation or belief even in the possibility
of continued
individuality after death, and that as his opinions have
done to live by
"they will do to die by." He died 5 Oct. 1884.
Bresson
(Léopold), French Positivist, b. Lamarche, 1817. Educated at
the Polytechnic
School, which he left in 1840 and served on public
works. For
seventeen years was director of an Austrian Railway
Company. Wrote
Idées Modernes, 1880.
Bridges (John
Henry), M.D. English Positivist, b. 1833, graduated
B.A. at Oxford
1855, and B.M. 1859; has written on Religion and
Progress,
contributed to the Fortnightly Review, and translated Comte's
General View of
Positivism (1865) and System of Positive Polity (1873).
Bril (Jakob),
Dutch mystical Pantheist, b. Leyden, 21 Jan. 1639. Died
1700. His works
were published at Amsterdam, 1705.
Brissot (Jean
Pierre) de Warville, active French revolutionist,
b. Chartres, 14
Jan. 1754. He was bred to the law, but took to
literature. He
wrote for the Courier de l'Europe, a revolutionary
paper
suppressed for its boldness, published a treatise on Truth,
and edited a
Philosophical Law Library, 1782-85. He wrote against the
legal authority
of Rome, and is credited with Philosophical Letters
upon St. Paul
and the Christian Religion, Neufchatel, 1783. In 1784
he was
imprisoned in the Bastille for his writings. To avoid a second
imprisonment he
went to England and America, returning to France
at the outbreak
of the Revolution. He wrote many political works,
became member
of the Legislative Assembly, formed the Girondist party,
protested
against the execution of Louis XVI., and upon the triumph
of the Mountain
was executed with twenty-one of his colleagues,
31 Oct., 1793.
Brissot was a voluminous writer, honest, unselfish,
and an earnest
lover of freedom in every form.
Bristol
(Augusta), née Cooper, American educator, b. Croydon, New
Haven, 17
April, 1835. In 1850 became teacher and gained repute by
her Poems. In
Sept. 1880, she represented American Freethinkers at
the
International Conference at Brussels. She has written on Science
and its
Relations to Human Character and other works.
Broca (Pierre
Paul), French anthropologist, b. 28 June, 1824. A
hard-working
scientist, he paid special attention to craniology. In
1875 he founded
the School of Anthropology and had among his pupils
Gratiolet,
Topinard, Hovelacque and Dr. Carter Blake, who translated
his treatise on
Hybridity. He established The Review of Anthropology,
published
numerous scientific works and was made a member of the
Legion of Honor.
In philosophy he inclined to Positivism. Died Paris,
9 July, 1880.
Brooksbank
(William), b. Nottingham 6 Dec. 1801. In 1824 he wrote
in Carlile's
Lion, and has since contributed to the Reasoner, the
Pathfinder, and
the National Reformer. He was an intimate friend
of James
Watson. He wrote A Sketch of the Religions of the Earth,
Revelation
Tested by Astronomy, Geography, Geology, etc., 1856, and
some other
pamphlets. Mr. Brooksbank is still living in honored age
at Nottingham.
Brothier
(Léon), author of a Popular History of Philosophy, 1861,
and other works
in the Bibliothèque Utile. He contributed to the
Rationalist of
Geneva.
Broussais
(François Joseph Victor), French physician and philosopher,
b. Saint Malo,
17 Dec. 1772. Educated at Dinan, in 1792 he served
as volunteer in
the army of the Republic. He studied medicine at
St. Malo and
Brest, and became a naval surgeon. A disciple of Bichat,
he did much to
reform medical science by his Examination of Received
Medical
Doctrines and to find a basis for mental and moral science in
physiology by
his many scientific works. Despite his bold opinions, he
was made
Commander of the Legion of Honor. He died poor at St. Malo 17
Nov. 1838,
leaving behind a profession of faith, in which he declares
his disbelief
in a creator and his being "without hope or fear of
another
life."
Brown (George
William), Dr., of Rockford, Illinois, b. in Essex Co.,
N.Y., Oct.
1820, of Baptist parents. At 17 years of age he was expelled
the church for
repudiating the dogma of an endless hell. Dr. Brown
edited the
Herald of Freedom, Kansas. In 1856 his office was destroyed
by a
pro-slavery mob, his type thrown into the river, and himself
and others
arrested but was released without trial. Dr. Brown has
contributed
largely to the Ironclad Age and other American Freethought
papers, and is
bringing out a work on the Origin of Christianity.
Brown (Titus
L.), Dr., b. 16 Oct. 1823, at Hillside (N.Y.). Studied
at the Medical
College of New York and graduated at the Homoeopathic
College,
Philadelphia. He settled at Binghamton where he had a large
practice. He
contributed to the Boston Investigator and in 1877 was
elected
President of the Freethinkers Association. Died 17 Aug. 1887.
Browne (Sir
Thomas), physician and writer, b. London, 19 Oct. 1605. He
studied
medicine and travelled on the Continent, taking his doctor's
degree at
Leyden (1633). He finally settled at Norwich, where he had
a good
practice. His treatise Religio Medici, famous for its fine
style and
curious mixture of faith and scepticism, was surreptitiously
published in
1642. It ran through several editions and was placed on
the Roman
Index. His Pseudodoxia Epidemica; Enquiries into Vulgar
and Common
Errors, appeared in 1646. While disputing many popular
superstitions
he showed he partook of others. This curious work
was followed by
Hydriotaphia, or Urn-Burial, in which he treats
of cremation
among the ancients. To this was added The Garden of
Cyrus. He died
19 Oct. 1682.
Bruno
(Giordano), Freethought martyr, b. at Nola, near Naples, about
1548. He was
christened Filippo which he changed to Filoteo, taking
the name of
Giordano when he entered the Dominican order. Religious
doubts and bold
strictures on the monks obliged him to quit Italy,
probably in
1580. He went to Geneva but soon found it no safe abiding
place, and
quitted it for Paris, where he taught, but refused to attend
mass. In 1583
he visited England, living with the French ambassador
Castelnau.
Having formed a friendship with Sir Philip Sidney, he
dedicated to
him his Spaccio della Bestia Triomfante, a satire on all
mythologies. In
1585 he took part in a logical tournament, sustaining
the Copernican
theory against the doctors of Oxford. The following year
he returned to
Paris, where he again attacked the Aristotelians. He
then travelled
to various cities in Germany, everywhere preaching
the broadest
heresy. He published several Pantheistic, scientific and
philosophical
works. He was however induced to return to Italy, and
arrested as an
heresiarch and apostate at Venice, Sept. 1592. After
being confined
for seven years by the Inquisitors, he was tried,
and burnt at
Rome 17 Feb. 1600. At his last moments a crucifix was
offered him,
which he nobly rejected. Bruno was vastly before his age
in his
conception of the universe and his rejection of theological
dogmas. A
statue of this heroic apostle of liberty and light, executed
by one of the
first sculptors of Italy, is to be erected on the spot
where he
perished, the Municipal Council of Rome having granted the
site in face of
the bitterest opposition of the Catholic party. The
list of
subscribers to this memorial comprises the principal advanced
thinkers in
Europe and America.
Brzesky
(Casimir Liszynsky Podsedek). See Liszinski.
Bucali or
Busali (Leonardo), a Calabrian abbot of Spanish descent,
who became a
follower of Servetus in the sixteenth century, and had
to seek among
the Turks the safety denied him in Christendom. He died
at Damascus.
Buchanan
(George), Scotch historian and scholar, b. Killearn,
Feb. 1506.
Evincing an early love of study, he was sent to
Paris at the
age of fourteen. He returned to Scotland and became
distinguished
for his learning. James V. appointed him tutor to his
natural son. He
composed his Franciscanus et Fratres, a satire on the
monks, which
hastened the Scottish reformation. This exposed him to
the vengeance
of the clergy. Not content with calling him Atheist,
Archbishop
Beaton had him arrested and confined in St. Andrew's
Castle, from
whence he escaped and fled to England. Here he found,
as he said, Henry
VIII. burning men of opposite opinions at the same
stake for
religion. He returned to Paris, but was again subjected to
the persecution
of Beaton, the Scottish Ambassador. On the death of
a patron at
Bordeaux, in 1548, he was seized by the Inquisition and
immured for a
year and a half in a monastery, where he translated
the Psalms into
Latin. He eventually returned to Scotland, where he
espoused the
party of Moray. After a most active life, he died 28
Sept. 1582,
leaving a History of Scotland, besides numerous poems,
satires, and
political writings, the most important of which is a
work of
republican tendency, De Jure Regni, the Rights of Kings.
Buchanan
(Robert), Socialist, b. Ayr, 1813. He was successively a
schoolmaster, a
Socialist missionary and a journalist. He settled in
Manchester,
where he published works on the Religion of The Past and
Present, 1839;
the Origin and Nature of Ghosts, 1840. An Exposure
of Joseph
Barker, and a Concise History of Modern Priestcraft also
bear the latter
date. At this time the Socialists were prosecuted for
lecturing on
Sunday, and Buchanan was fined for refusing to take the
oath of
supremacy, etc. After the decline of Owenism, he wrote for
the Northern
Star, and edited the Glasgow Sentinel. He died at the
home of his
son, the poet, at Bexhill, Sussex, 4 March, 1866.
Buchanan
(Joseph Rhodes), American physician, b. Frankfort, Kentucky,
11 Dec. 1814.
He graduated M.D. at Louisville University, 1842, and
has been the
teacher of physiology at several colleges. From 1849-56
he published
Buchanan's Journal of Man, and has written several works
on
Anthropology.
Buchner
(Ludwig). See Buechner.
Buckle (Henry
Thomas), philosophical historian, b. Lee, Kent, 24
Nov. 1821. In
consequence of his delicate health he was educated at
home. His
mother was a strict Calvinist, his father a strong Tory,
but a visit to
the Continent made him a Freethinker and Radical. He
ever afterwards
held travelling to be the best education. It was his
ambition to
write a History of Civilisation in England, but so vast was
his design that
his three notable volumes with that title form only
part of the
introduction. The first appeared in 1858, and created a
great sensation
by its boldness. In the following year he championed
the cause of
Pooley, who was condemned for blasphemy, and dared the
prosecution of
infidels of standing. In 1861 he visited the East,
in the hope of
improving his health, but died at Damascus, 29 May,
1862. Much of
the material collected for his History has been published
in his Miscellaneous
and Posthumous Works, edited by Helen Taylor,
1872. An
abridged edition, edited by Grant Allen, appeared in 1886.
Buechner
(Friedrich Karl Christian Ludwig), German materialist,
b. Darmstadt,
29 March, 1824. Studied medicine in Geissen, Strassburg
and Vienna. In
'55 he startled the world with his bold work on
Force and
Matter, which has gone through numerous editions and been
translated into
nearly all the European languages. This work lost
him the place
of professor which he held at Tübingen, and he has
since practised
in his native town. Büchner has developed his ideas
in many other
works such as Nature and Spirit (1857), Physiological
Sketches, '61;
Nature and Science, '62; Conferences on Darwinism,
'69; Man in the
Past, Present and Future, '69; Materialism its History
and Influence
on Society, '73; The Idea of God, '74; Mind in Animals,
'80; and Light
and Life, '82. He also contributes to the Freidenker,
the Dageraad,
and other journals.
Buffon (Georges
Louis Leclerc), Count de, French naturalist,
b. Montford,
Burgundy, 7 Sept. 1707. An incessant worker. His Natural
History in 36
volumes bears witness to the fertility of his mind
and his
capacity for making science attractive. Buffon lived much in
seclusion, and
attached himself to no sect or religion. Some of his
sentences were
attacked by the Sorbonne. Hérault de Sêchelles says
that Buffon
said: "I have named the Creator, but it is only necessary
to take out the
word and substitute the power of nature." Died at
Paris 16 April,
1788.
Buitendijk or
Buytendyck (Gosuinus van), Dutch Spinozist, who wrote an
Apology at the
beginning of the eighteenth century and was banished
1716.
Bufalini
(Maurizio), Italian doctor, b. Cesena 2 June, 1787. In 1813 he
published an
essay on the Doctrine of Life in opposition to vitalism,
and
henceforward his life was a conflict with the upholders of that
doctrine. He
was accused of materialism, but became a professor at
Florence and a
member of the Italian Senate in 1860. Died at Florence
31 March, 1875.
Burdach (Karl
Friedrich), German physiologist, b. Leipsic 12 June,
1776. He
occupied a chair at the University of Breslau. His works on
physiology and
anthropology did much to popularise those sciences,
and the former
is placed on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum for its
materialistic
tendency. He died at Konigsberg, 16 July, 1847.
Burdon
(William), M.A., writer, b. Newcastle, 11 Sept. 1764. Graduated
at Emmanuel
College, Cambridge, 1788. He was intended for a clergyman,
but want of
faith made him decline that profession. His principal work
is entitled
Materials for Thinking. Colton largely availed himself of
this work in
his Lacon. It went through five editions in his lifetime,
and portions
were reprinted in the Library of Reason. He also addressed
Three Letters
to the Bishop of Llandaff, wrote a Life and Character of
Bonaparte,
translated an account of the Revolution in Spain, edited the
Memoirs of
Count Boruwlaski, and wrote some objections to the annual
subscription to
the Sons of the Clergy. Died in London, 30 May, 1818.
Burigny (Jean
Levesque de), French writer, b. Rheims, 1692. He became
a member of the
French Academy, wrote a treatise on the Authority
of the Pope, a
History of Pagan Philosophy and other works, and
is credited
with the Critical Examination of the Apologists of the
Christian
Religion, published under the name of Freret by Naigeon,
1766. Levesque
de Burigny wrote a letter in answer to Bergier's
Proofs of
Christianity, which is published in Naigeon's Recueil
Philosophique.
Died at Paris, 8 Oct. 1785.
Burmeister
(Hermann), German naturalist, b. Stralsund, 15 Jan. 1807. In
1827 he became
a doctor at Halle. In '48 he was elected to the National
Assembly. In
1850 he went to Brazil. His principal work is The History
of Creation,
1843.
Burmeister or
Baurmeister (Johann Peter Theodor) a German Rationalist
and colleague
of Ronge. Born at Flensburg, 1805. He resided in
Hamburg, and
wrote in the middle of the present century under the
name of J. P.
Lyser.
Burnet
(Thomas), b. about 1635 at Croft, Yorkshire. Through the
interest of a
pupil, the Duke of Ormonde, he obtained the mastership
of the
Charterhouse, 1685. In 1681 the first part of his Telluris
Theoria Sacra,
or Sacred Theory of the Earth, appeared in Latin, and
was translated
and modified in 1684. In 1692 Burnet published, both
in English and
in Latin, his Archæologiæ Philosophicæ, or the Ancient
Doctrine of the
Origin of Things. He professes in this to reconcile
his theory with
Genesis, which receives a figurative interpretation;
and a ludicrous
dialogue between Eve and the serpent gave great
offence. In a
popular ballad Burnet is represented as saying--
That all the books of Moses
Were nothing but supposes.
He had to
resign a position at court. In later life he wrote De Fide
et Officiis
Christianorum (on Christian Faith and Duties), in which
he regards
historical religions as based on the religion of nature,
and rejects
original sin and the "magical" theory of sacraments;
and De Statu
Mortuorum et Resurgentium, on the State of the Dead and
Resurrected, in
which he opposed the doctrine of eternal punishment
and shadowed
forth a scheme of Deism. These books he kept to himself
to avoid a
prosecution for heresy, but had a few copies printed for
private
friends. He died in the Charterhouse 27 Sept. 1715. A tract
entitled Hell
Torments not Eternal was published in 1739.
Burnett
(James), Lord Monboddo, a learned Scotch writer and judge,
was b.
Monboddo, Oct. 1714. He adopted the law as his profession,
became a
celebrated advocate, and was made a judge in 1767. His
work on the
Origin and Progress of Language (published anonymously
1773-92),
excited much derision by his studying man as one of the
animals and
collecting facts about savage tribes to throw light on
civilisation.
He first maintained that the orang-outang was allied
to the human
species. He also wrote on Ancient Metaphysics. He was
a keen debater
and discussed with Hume, Adam Smith, Robertson, and
Lord Kames.
Died in Edinburgh, 26 May, 1799.
Burnouf (Emile
Louis), French writer, b. Valonges, 25 Aug. 1821. He
became
professor of ancient literature to the faculty of Nancy. Author
of many works,
including a translation of selections from the Novum
Organum of
Bacon, the Bhagvat-Gita, an Introduction to the Vedas,
a history of
Greek Literature, Studies in Japanese, and articles
in the Revue
des deux Mondes. His heresy is pronounced in his work
on the Science
of Religions, 1878, in his Contemporary Catholicism,
and Life and
Thought, 1886.
Burnouf
(Eugène), French Orientalist, cousin of the preceding;
b. Paris, 12
Aug. 1801. He opened up to the Western world the Pali
language, and
with it the treasures of Buddhism, whose essentially
Atheistic
character he maintained. To him also we are largely indebted
for a knowledge
of Zend and of the Avesta of the Zoroastrians. He
translated
numerous Oriental works and wrote a valuable Introduction
to the History
of Indian Buddhism. Died at Paris, 28 May, 1852.
Burns (Robert),
Scotland's greatest poet, b. near Ayr, 25
Jan. 1759. His
father was a small farmer, of enlightened views. The
life and works
of Burns are known throughout the world. His
Freethought is
evident from such productions as the "Holy Fair,"
"The
Kirk's Alarm," and "Holy Willie's Prayer," and many passages in
private letters
to his most familiar male friends. Died at Dumfries,
21 July, 1796.
Burr (William
Henry), American author, b. 1819, Gloversville, N.Y.,
graduated at
Union College, Schenectady, became a shorthand reporter
to the Senate.
In 1869 he retired and devoted himself to literary
research. He is
the anonymous author of Revelations of Antichrist, a
learned book
which exposes the obscurity of the origin of Christianity,
and seeks to
show that the historical Jesus lived almost a century
before the
Christian era. He has also written several pamphlets:
Thomas Paine
was Junius, 1880: Self Contradictions of the Bible;
Is the Bible a
Lying Humbug? A Roman Catholic Canard, etc. He has
also frequently
contributed to the Boston Investigator, the New York
Truthseeker,
and the Ironclad Age of Indianapolis.
Burton (Sir
Richard Francis), traveller, linguist, and author,
b. Barham
House, Herts, 19 March, 1821. Intended for the Church,
he matriculated
at Oxford, but in 1842 entered the East India
Company's
service, served on the staff of Sir C. Napier, and soon
acquired
reputation as an intrepid explorer. In '51 he returned to
England and
started for Mecca and Medina, visiting those shrines
unsuspected, as
a Moslem pilgrim. He was chief of the staff of the
Osmanli cavalry
in the Crimean war, and has made many remarkable and
dangerous
expeditions in unknown lands; he discovered and opened
the lake
regions in Central Africa and explored the highlands of
Brazil. He has
been consul at Fernando Po, Santos, Damascus, and
since 1872 at
Trieste, and speaks over thirty languages. His latest
work is a new
translation of The Thousand Nights and a Night in 10
vols. Being
threatened with a prosecution, he intended justifying
"literal
naturalism" from the Bible. Burton's knowledge of Arabic is
so perfect that
when he used to read the tales to Arabs, they would
roll on the
ground in fits of laughter.
Butler
(Samuel), poet, b. in Strensham, Worcestershire, Feb. 1612. In
early life he
came under the influence of Selden. He studied painting,
and is said to
have painted a head of Cromwell from life. He became
clerk to Sir
Samuel Luke, one of Cromwell's Generals, whom he has
satirised as
Hudibras. This celebrated burlesque poem appeared in 1663
and became
famous, but, although the king and court were charmed with
its wit, the
author was allowed to remain in poverty and obscurity
till he died at
Covent Garden, London, 25 Sept. 1680. Butler expressed
the opinion
that
"Religion is the interest of
churches
That sell in other worlds in this to purchase."
Buttmann
(Philipp Karl), German philologist, b. Frankfort, 5
Dec. 1764.
Became librarian of the Royal Library at Berlin. He edited
many of the
Greek Classics, wrote on the Myth of the Deluge, 1819,
and a learned
work on Mythology, 1828. Died Berlin, 21 June, 1829.
Buzot (François
Léonard Nicolas), French Girondin, distinguished as
an ardent
Republican and a friend and lover of Madame Roland. Born
at Evreux, 1
March, 1760; he died from starvation when hiding after
the suppression
of his party June, 1793.
Byelinsky
(Vissarion G.) See Belinsky.
Byron (George
Gordon Noel) Lord, b. London, 22 Jan. 1788. He succeeded
his grand-uncle
William in 1798; was sent to Harrow and Cambridge. In
1807 he
published his Hours of Idleness, and awoke one morning to find
himself famous.
His power was, however, first shown in his English
Bards and
Scotch Reviewers, in which he satirised his critics, 1809. He
then travelled
on the Continent, the result of which was seen in his
Childe Harold's
Pilgrimage and other works. He married 2 Jan. 1815,
but a
separation took place in the following year. Lord Byron then
resided in
Italy, where he made the acquaintance of Shelley. In 1823
he devoted his
name and fortune to the cause of the Greek revolution,
but was seized
with fever and died at Missolonghi, 19 April, 1824. His
drama of Cain:
a Mystery, 1822, is his most serious utterance,
and it shows a
profound contempt for religious dogma. This feeling
is also
exhibited in his magnificent burlesque poem, The Vision
of Judgment, which
places him at the head of English satirists. In
his letters to
the Rev. Francis Hodgson, 1811, he distinctly says:
"I do not
believe in any revealed religion.... I will have nothing
to do with your
immortality; we are miserable enough in this life,
without the
absurdity of speculating upon another.... The basis of
your religion
is injustice; the Son of God, the pure, the immaculate,
the innocent,
is sacrificed for the guilty," etc.
Cabanis (Pierre
Jean George), called by Lange "the father of the
materialistic
physiology," b. Conac, 5 June, 1757. Became pupil
of Condillac
and friend of Mirabeau, whom he attended in his last
illness, of
which he published an account 1791. He was also intimate
with Turgot,
Condorcet, Holbach, Diderot, and other distinguished
Freethinkers,
and was elected member of the Institute and of the
Council of Five
Hundred in the Revolution. His works are mostly
medical, the
chief being Des Rapports du Physique et du Morale de
l'Homme, in
which he contends that thoughts are a secretion of the
brain. Died
Rueil, near Paris, 5 May, 1808.
Cæsalpinus
(Andreas), Italian philosopher of the Renaissance,
b. Arezzo,
Tuscany, 1519. He became Professor of Botany at Pisa, and
Linnæus admits
his obligations to his work, De Plantis, 1583. He also
wrote works on
metals and medicine, and showed acquaintance with the
circulation of
the blood. In a work entitled Demonum Investigatio,
he contends
that "possession" by devils is amenable to medical
treatment. His
Quæstionum Peripateticarum, in five books, Geneva,
1568, was
condemned as teaching a Pantheistic doctrine similar to
that of
Spinoza. Bishop Parker denounced him. Died 23 Feb. 1603.
Cæsar (Caius
Julius), the "foremost man of all this world," equally
renowned as
soldier, statesman, orator, and writer, b. 12 July,
100 B.C., of
noble family. His life, the particulars of which are
well known, was
an extraordinary display of versatility, energy,
courage, and
magnanimity. He justified the well-known line of Pope,
"Cæsar the
world's great master and his own." His military talents
elevated him to
the post of dictator, but this served to raise against
him a band of
aristocratic conspirators, by whom he was assassinated,
15 March, 44
B.C. His Commentaries are a model of insight and clear
expression.
Sallust relates that he questioned the existence of
a future state
in the presence of the Roman senate. Froude says:
"His own
writings contain nothing to indicate that he himself had any
religious
belief at all. He saw no evidence that the gods practically
interfered in
human affairs.... He held to the facts of this life and
to his own
convictions; and as he found no reason for supposing that
there was a
life beyond the grave he did not pretend to expect it."
Cahuac (John),
bookseller, revised an edition of Palmer's Principles
of Nature,
1819. For this he was prosecuted at the instance of the
"Vice
Society," but the matter was compromised. He was also prosecuted
for selling the
Republican, 1820.
Calderino
(Domizio), a learned writer of the Renaissance, b. in 1445,
in the
territory of Verona, and lived at Rome, where he was professor
of literature,
in 1477. He edited and commented upon many of the
Latin poets.
Bayle says he was without religion. Died in 1478.
Calenzio
(Eliseo), an Italian writer, b. in the kingdom of Naples about
1440. He was
preceptor to Prince Frederic, the son of Ferdinand, the
King of Naples.
He died in 1503, leaving behind a number of satires,
fables and
epigrams, some of which are directed against the Church.
Call (Wathen
Mark Wilks), English author, b. 7 June, 1817. Educated at
Cambridge,
entered the ministry in 1843, but resigned his curacy about
1856 on account
of his change of opinions, which he recounts in his
preface to
Reverberations, 1876. Mr. Call is of the Positivist school,
and has contributed
largely to the Fortnightly and Westminster Reviews.
Callet (Pierre
Auguste), French politician, b. St. Etienne, 27
Oct. 1812;
became editor of the Gazette of France till 1840. In 1848
he was
nominated Republican representative. At the coup d'état of 2
Dec. 1851, he
took refuge in Belgium. He returned to France, but was
imprisoned for
writing against the Empire. In 1871, Callet was again
elected
representative for the department of the Loire. His chief
Freethought
work is L'Enfer, an attack upon the Christian doctrine
of hell, 1861.
Camisani
(Gregorio), Italian writer, b. at Venice, 1810. A Professor
of Languages in
Milan. He has translated the Upas of Captain R. H. Dyas
and other
works.
Campanella
(Tommaso), Italian philosopher, b. Stilo, Calabria,
5 Sept. 1568.
He entered the Dominican order, but was too much
attracted by
the works of Telesio to please his superiors. In 1590
his Philosophia
Sensibus Demonstratio was printed at Naples. Being
prosecuted, he
fled to Rome, and thence to Florence, Venice,
and Padua. At
Bologna some of his MS. fell into the hands of the
Inquisition,
and he was arrested. He ably defended himself and was
acquitted.
Returning to Calabria in 1599, he was arrested on charges
of heresy and
conspiracy against the Spanish Government of Naples,
and having
appealed to Rome, was sentenced to perpetual imprisonment
in the prison
of the Holy Office. He was put to the torture seven
times, his
torments on one occasion extending over forty hours, but
he refused to
confess. He was dragged from one prison to another for
twenty-seven
years, during which he wrote some sonnets, a history of
the Spanish
monarchy, and several philosophical works. On 15 May,
1626, he was
released by the intervention of Pope Urban VIII. He
was obliged to
fly from Rome to France, where he met Gassendi. He
also visited
Descartes in Holland. Julian Hibbert remarked that
his Atheismus
Triumphatus--Atheism Subdued, 1631, would be better
entitled
Atheismus Triumphans--Atheism Triumphant--as the author puts
his strongest
arguments on the heterodox side. In his City of the Sun,
Campanella
follows Plato and More in depicting an ideal republic and a
time when a new
era of earthly felicity should begin. Hallam says "The
strength of
Campanella's genius lay in his imagination." His "Sonnets"
have been
translated by J. A. Symonds. Died Paris, 21 May, 1639.
Campbell
(Alexander), Socialist of Glasgow, b. about the beginning
of the century.
He early became a Socialist, and was manager at
the experiment
at Orbiston under Abram Combe, of whom he wrote
a memoir. Upon
the death of Combe, 1827, he became a Socialist
missionary in
England. He took an active part in the co-operative
movement, and
in the agitation for an unstamped press, for which he
was tried and
imprisoned at Edinburgh, 1833-4. About 1849 he returned
to Glasgow and
wrote on the Sentinel. In 1867 he was presented with
a testimonial
and purse of 90 sovereigns by admirers of his exertions
in the cause of
progress. Died about 1873.
Campion
(William), a shoemaker, who became one of R. Carlile's
shopmen; tried
8 June, 1824, for selling Paine's Age of Reason. After
a spirited
defence he was found guilty and sentenced to three years'
imprisonment.
In prison he edited, in conjunction with J. Clarke,
E. Hassell, and
T. R. Perry, the Newgate Monthly Magazine, to which
he contributed
some thoughtful papers, from Sept. 1824, to Aug. 1826,
when he was
removed to the Compter.
Canestrini
(Giovanni), Italian naturalist, b. Rerò, 1835. He studied
at Vienna, and
in '60 was nominated Professor of Natural History at
Geneva. Signor
Canestrini contributed to the Annuario Filosofico del
Libero
Pensiero, and is known for his popularisation of the works
of Darwin,
which he has translated into Italian. He has written
upon the Origin
of Man, which has gone through two editions, Milan,
'66-'70, and on
the Theory of Evolution, Turin, '77. He was appointed
Professor of
Zoology, Anatomy and Comparative Physiology at Padua,
where he has
published a Memoir of Charles Darwin, '82.
Cardano
(Girolamo), better known as Jerome Cardan, Italian
mathematician,
and physician, b. Pavia, 24 Sept. 1501. He studied
medicine, but
was excluded from the Milan College of Physicians on
account of
illegitimate birth. He and his young wife were at one time
compelled to
take refuge in the workhouse. It is not strange that his
first work was
an exposure of the fallacies of the faculty. A fortunate
cure brought
him into notice and he journeyed to Scotland as the
medical adviser
of the Archbishop of St. Andrews, 1551. In 1563 he was
arrested at
Bologna for heresy, but was released, although deprived of
his
professorship. He died at Rome, 20 Sept. 1576, having, it is said,
starved himself
to verify his own prediction of his death. Despite
some
superstition, Cardano did much to forward science, especially
by his work on
Algebra, and in his works De Subtilitate Rerum and De
Varietate
Rerum, amid much that is fanciful, perceived the universality
of natural law
and the progressive evolution of life. Scaliger accused
him of Atheism.
Pünjer says "Cardanus deserves to be named along with
Telesius as one
of the principal founders of Natural Philosophy."
Carducci
(Giosuè), Italian poet and Professor of Italian Literature at
the University
of Bologna, b. Pietrasantra, in the province of Lucca,
27 July, 1836.
As early as '49 he cried, Abasso tutti i re! viva la
republica--Down
with all kings! Long live the republic! Sprung into
fame by his
Hymn to Satan, '69, by which he intended the spirit of
resistance. He
has written many poems and satires in which he exhibits
himself an
ardent Freethinker and Republican. At the end of '57 he
wrote his
famous verse "Il secoletto vil che cristianeggia"--"This
vile
christianising century." In '60 he became professor of Greek
in Bologna
University, being suspended for a short while in '67 for
an address to
Mazzini. In '76 he was elected as republican deputy to
the Italian
Parliament for Lugo di Romagna.
Carlile (Eliza
Sharples), second wife of Richard Carlile, came from
Lancashire
during the imprisonment of Carlile and Taylor, 1831,
delivered
discourses at the Rotunda, and started a journal, the Isis,
which lasted
from 11 Feb. to 15 Dec. 1832. The Isis was dedicated
to the young
women of England "until superstition is extinct,"
and contained
Frances Wright's discourses, in addition to those
by Mrs.
Carlile, who survived till '61. Mr. Bradlaugh lodged with
Mrs. Carlile at
the Warner Place Institute, in 1849. She had three
children,
Hypatia, Theophila and Julian, of whom the second is
still living.
Carlile (Jane),
first wife of R. Carlile, who carried on his business
during his
imprisonment, was proceeded against, and sentenced to two
years'
imprisonment, 1821. She had three children, Richard, Alfred,
and Thomas
Paine Carlile, the last of whom edited the Regenerator,
a Chartist
paper published at Manchester, 1839.
Carlile
(Richard), foremost among the brave upholders of an English
free press, b.
Ashburton, Devon, 8 Dec. 1790. He was apprenticed to a
tin-plate
worker, and followed that business till he was twenty-six,
when, having
read the works of Paine, he began selling works like
Wooler's Black
Dwarf, which Government endeavored to suppress. Sherwin
offered him the
dangerous post of publisher of the Republican, which
he accepted. He
then published Southey's Wat Tyler, reprinted the
political works
of Paine and the parodies for which Hone was tried, but
which cost
Carlile eighteen weeks' imprisonment. In 1818 he published
Paine's
Theological Works. The prosecution instituted induced him to
go on printing
similar works, such as Palmer's Principles of Nature,
Watson Refuted,
Jehovah Unveiled, etc. By Oct. 1819, he had six
indictments to
answer, on two of which he was tried from 12 to 16
October. He
read the whole of the Age of Reason in his defence, in
order to have
it in the report of the trial. He was found guilty and
sentenced (16
Nov.) to fifteen hundred pounds fine and three years'
imprisonment in
Dorchester Gaol. During his imprisonment his business
was kept on by
a succession of shopmen. Refusing to find securities
not to publish,
he was kept in prison till 18 Nov. 1835, when he
was liberated
unconditionally. During his imprisonment he edited
the Republican,
which extended to fourteen volumes. He also edited
the Deist, the
Moralist, the Lion (four volumes), the Prompter (for
No. 3 of which
he again suffered thirty-two months' imprisonment),
and the
Gauntlet. Amongst his writings are An Address to Men of
Science, The
Gospel according to R. Carlile, What is God? Every
Woman's Book,
etc. He published Doubts of Infidels, Janus on Sion,
Sepher Toldoth
Jeshu, D'Holbach's Good Sense, Volney's Ruins, and
many other
Freethought works. He died 10 Feb. 1843, bequeathing his
body to Dr.
Lawrence for scientific purposes.
Carlyle
(Thomas), one of the most gifted and original writers of the
century, b. 4
Dec. 1795, at Ecclefechan, Dumfriesshire, where his
father, a man
of intellect and piety, held a small farm. Showing early
ability he was
intended for the Kirk, and educated at the University
of Edinburgh.
He, however, became a tutor, and occupied his leisure
in translating
from the German. He married Jane Welsh 17 Oct. 1826,
and wrote in
the London Magazine and Edinburgh Review many masterly
critical
articles, notably on Voltaire, Diderot, Burns, and German
literature. In
1833-4 his Sartor Resartus appeared in Fraser's
Magazine. In
'34 he removed to London and began writing the French
Revolution, the
MS. of the first vol. of which he confided to Mill,
with whom it
was accidentally burnt. He re-wrote the work without
complaint, and
it was published in '37. He then delivered a course
of lectures on
"German Literature" and on "Heroes, Hero-Worship, and
the Heroic in
History," in which he treats Mahomet as the prophet
"we are
freest to speak of." His Past and Present was published in
'43. In '45
appeared Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches. In
'50 he
published Latter-Day Pamphlets, which contains his most
distinctive
political and social doctrines, and in the following year
his Life of
John Sterling, in which his heresy clearly appears. His
largest work is
his History of the Life and Times of Frederick the
Great, in 10
vols. He was elected rector of Edinburgh University in
'65. Died 5
Feb. 1881. Mr. Froude, in his Biography of Carlyle, says,
"We have
seen him confessing to Irving that he did not believe as his
friend did in
the Christian religion." ... "the special miraculous
occurrences of
sacred history were not credible to him."
Carneades,
sceptical philosopher, b. Cyrene about B.C. 213. He went
early to
Athens, and attended the lectures of the Stoics, learning
logic from
Diogenes. In the year 155, he was chosen with other
deputies to go
to Rome to deprecate a fine which had been placed on
the Athenians.
During his stay at Rome he attracted great attention
by his
philosophical orations. Carneades attacked the very idea of
a God at once
infinite and an individual. He denied providence and
design. Many of
his arguments are preserved in Cicero's Academics
and De Natura
Deorum. Carneades left no written works; his views
seem to have
been systematised by his follower Clitomachus. He died
B.C. 129.
Carneades is described as a man of unwearied industry. His
ethics were of
elevated character.
Carneri
(Bartholomäus von), German writer, b. Trieste, 3
Nov. 1821.
Educated at Vienna. In 1870 he sat in the Austrian
Parliament with
the Liberals. Author of an able work on Morality and
Darwinism,
Vienna, 1871. Has also written Der Mensch als Selbstweck,
"Humanity
as its own proper object," 1877; Grundlegung der Ethik,
Foundation of
Morals, 1881; and Ethical Essays on Evolution and
Happiness,
Stuttgart, 1886.
Carra (Jean
Louis), French man of letters and Republican, b. 1743 at
Pont de Veyle.
He travelled in Germany, Italy, Turkey, Russia, and
Moldavia, where
he became secretary to the hospodar. On returning to
France he
became employed in the King's library and wrote a History
of Moldavia and
an Essay on Aerial Navigation. He warmly espoused
the revolution
and was one of the most ardent orators of the Jacobin
club. In the
National Assembly he voted for the death of Louis XVI.,
but was
executed with the Girondins, 31 Oct. 1793. His Freethought
sentiments are
evident from his System of Reason, 1773; his Spirit
of Morality and
Philosophy, 1777; New Principles of Physic, 1782-3,
and other
works.
Carrel (Jean Baptiste
Nicolas Armand), called by Saint Beuve "the
Junius of the
French press," b. Rouen, 8 May, 1800. He became a
soldier, but,
being a Republican, fought on behalf of the Spanish
revolution.
Being taken prisoner, he was condemned to death, but
escaped through
some informality. He became secretary to Thierry,
edited the
works of P. L. Courier, and established the Nation in
conjunction
with Thiers and Mignet. J. S. Mill writes of him in terms
of high praise.
The leading journalist of his time, his slashing
articles led to
several duels, and in an encounter with Emile de
Girardin (22
July, 1836) he was fatally wounded. On his death-bed,
says M. Littré,
he said "Point de prêtres, point d'église"--no
priests nor
church. Died 24 July, 1836. He wrote a History of the
Counter-Revolution
in England, with an eye to events in his own
country.
Carus (Julius
Viktor), German zoologist, b. Leipsic, 25 Aug. 1825. Has
been keeper of
anatomical museum at Oxford, and has translated Darwin's
works and the
philosophy of G. H. Lewes.
Carus (Karl
Gustav), German physiologist and Pantheist, b. Leipsic,
3 Jan. 1789. He
taught comparative anatomy at the university of that
town, and
published a standard introduction to that subject. He also
wrote Psyche, a
history of the development of the human soul, 1846,
and Nature and
Idea, 1861. Died at Dresden, 28 July, 1869.
Castelar y
Ripoll (Emilio), Spanish statesman, b. Cadiz,
8 Sept. 1832.
He began as a journalist, and became known by his
novel Ernesto,
1855. As professor of history and philosophy, he
delivered
lectures on "Civilisation during the first three centuries of
Christendom."
La Formula del Progresso contains a sketch of democratic
principles. On
the outbreak of the revolution of '68 he advocated
a Federal
Republic in a magnificent oration. The Crown was however
offered to
Amadeus of Savoy. "Glass, with care," was Castelar's verdict
on the new
dynasty, and in Feb. '73 Castelar drew up a Republican
Constitution;
and for a year was Dictator of Spain. Upon his retirement
to France he
wrote a sketchy History of the Republican Movement in
Europe. In '76
he returned to Spain and took part in the Cortes,
where he has
continued to advocate Republican views. His Old Rome and
New Italy, and
Life of Lord Byron have been translated into English.
Castelli
(David), Italian writer, b. Livorno, 30 Dec. 1836. Since
1873 he has
held the chair of Hebrew in the Institute of Superior
Studies at
Florence. He has translated the book of Ecclesiastes with
notes, and
written rationalistic works on Talmudic Legends, 1869;
The Messiah
According to the Hebrews, '74; the Bible Prophets, '82;
and The History
of the Israelites, 1887.
Castilhon (Jean
Louis), French man of letters, b. at Toulouse in
1720. He wrote
in numerous publications, and edited the Journal of
Jurisprudence.
His history of dogmas and philosophical opinions had
some celebrity,
and he shows himself a Freethinker in his Essay
on Ancient and
Modern Errors and Superstitions, Amsterdam, 1765;
his
Philosophical Almanack, 1767; and his History of Philosophical
Opinions, 1769.
Died 1793.
Cattell
(Christopher Charles), writer in English Secular journals,
author of
Search for the First Man; Against Christianity; The Religion
of this Life,
etc.
Caumont
(Georges), French writer of genius, b. about 1845. Suffering
from
consumption, he wrote Judgment of a Dying Man upon Life,
and humorous
and familiar Conversations of a Sick Person with the
Divinity. Died
at Madeira, 1875.
Cavalcante
(Guido), noble Italian poet and philosopher, b. Florence,
1230. A friend of
Dante, and a leader of the Ghibbelin party. He
married a
daughter of Farinata delgi Uberti. Bayle says, "it is said
his speculation
has as their aim to prove there is no God. Dante places
his father in
the hell of Epicureans, who denied the immortality of
the soul."
Guido died in 1300. An edition of his poems was published
in 1813.
Cavallotti
(Felice Carlo Emanuel), Italian poet and journalist,
b. Milan, 6
Nov. 1842, celebrated for his patriotic poems; is a
pronounced
Atheist. He was elected member of the Italian parliament
in 1873.
Cayla (Jean
Mamert), French man of letters and politician b. Vigan
(Lot) 1812.
Became in '37 editor of the Emancipator of Toulouse,
a city of which
he wrote the history. At Paris he wrote to the
Siècle, the
République Française and other journals, and published
European
Celebrities and numerous anti-clerical brochures, such as
The Clerical
Conspiracy, '61; The Devil, his Grandeur and Decay,
'64; Hell
Demolished, '65; Suppression of Religious Orders, '70;
and The History
of the Mass,'74. He died 2 May, 1877.
Cazelles
(Emile), French translator of Bentham's Influence of Natural
Religion,
Paris, 1875. Has also translated Mill's Subjection of Women
and his
Autobiography and Essays on Religion.
Cecco d'Ascoli,
i.e., Stabili (Francesco degli), Italian poet,
b. Ascoli,
1257. He taught astrology and philosophy at Bologna. In
1324 he was
arrested by the Inquisition for having spoken against the
faith, and was
condemned to fine and penitence. He was again accused
at Florence,
and was publicly burnt as an heretic 16 Sept. 1327. His
best known work
is entitled Acerba, a sort of encyclopædia in rhyme.
Cellarius
(Martin), Anabaptist, who deserves mention as the first
avowed
Protestant Anti-trinitarian. He studied Oriental languages
with Reuchlin
and Melancthon, but having discussed with Anabaptists
acknowledged
himself converted, 1522, and afterwards gave up the deity
of Christ. He
was imprisoned, and on his release went to Switzerland,
where he died
11 Oct. 1564.
Celsus, a Pagan
philosopher, who lived in the second century. He was
a friend of
Lucian, who dedicated to him his treatise on the False
Prophet. He
wrote an attack on Christianity, called The True Word. The
work was
destroyed by the early Christians. The passages given by
his opponent,
Origen, suffice to show that he was a man of high
attainments,
well acquainted with the religion he attacked, and that
his power of
logic and irony was most damaging to the Christian faith.
Cerutti
(Giuseppe Antonio Gioachino), poet, converted Jesuit,
b. Turin, 13
June, 1738. He became a Jesuit, and wrote a defence of
the Society. He
afterwards became a friend of Mirabeau, adopted the
principles of
1789, wrote in defence of the Revolution, and wrote
and published a
Philosophical Breviary, or history of Judaism,
Christianity,
and Deism, which he attributed to Frederick of
Prussia. His
opinions may also be gathered from his poem, Les Jardins
de Betz, 1792.
Died Paris, 3 Feb. 1792.
Chaho (J.
Augustin), Basque man of letters, b. Tardets,
Basses-Pyrénées,
10 Oct. 1811. His principal works are a Philosophy of
Comparative
Religion, and a Basque dictionary. At Bayonne he edited
the Ariel. In
1852 this was suppressed and he was exiled. Died 23
Oct. 1858.
Chaloner
(Thomas), M.P., Regicide, b. Steeple Claydon, Bucks,
1595. Educated
at Oxford, he became member for Richmond (Yorks),
1645. Was a
witness against Archbishop Laud, and one of King Charles's
Judges. In 1651
he was made Councillor of State. Wood says he "was as
far from being
a Puritan as the east is from the west," and that he
"was of
the natural religion." He wrote a pretended True and Exact
Relation of the
Finding of Moses His Tomb, 1657, being a satire
directed
against the Presbyterians. Upon the Restoration he fled to
the Low
Countries, and died at Middelburg, Zeeland, in 1661.
Chambers
(Ephraim), originator of the Cyclopædia of Arts and Sciences,
b. Kendal about
1680. The first edition of his work appeared in 1728,
and procured
him admission to the Royal Society. A French translation
gave rise to Diderot
and D'Alembert's Encyclopédie. Chambers also
edited the
Literary Magazine, 1836, etc. His infidel opinions were
well known, and
the Cyclopædia was placed upon the Index, but he was
buried in the
cloisters of Westminster Abbey. Died 15 May, 1740.
Chamfort
(Sébastien Roch Nicolas), French man of letters, b. in
Auvergne, near
Clermont, 1741. He knew no parent but his mother,
a peasant girl,
to supply whose wants he often denied himself
necessaries. At
Paris he gained a prize from the Academy for his
eulogy on
Molière. About 1776 he published a Dramatic Dictionary
and wrote
several plays. In 1781 he obtained a seat in the Academy,
being
patronised by Mme. Helvetius. He became a friend of Mirabeau,
who called him
une tête électrique. In 1790 he commenced a work called
Pictures of the
Revolution. In the following year he became secretary
of the Jacobin
Club and National Librarian. Arrested by Robespierre,
he desperately,
but vainly, endeavored to commit suicide. He died 13
April, 1794,
leaving behind numerous works and a collection of Maxims,
Thoughts,
Characters, and Anecdotes, which show profound genius and
knowledge of
human nature.
Chapman (John),
M.R.C.S., b. 1839. Has written largely in the
Westminster
Review, of which he is proprietor.
Chappellsmith (Margaret),
née Reynolds, b. Aldgate, 22 Feb. 1806. Early
in life she
read the writings of Cobbett. In '36 she began writing
political
articles in the Dispatch, and afterwards became a Socialist
and Freethought
lecturess. She married John Chappellsmith in '39,
and in '42 she
began business as a bookseller. In '37 she expressed
a preference
for the development theory before that of creation. In
'50 they
emigrated to the United States, where Mrs. Chappellsmith
contributed
many articles to the Boston Investigator.
Charles
(Rudolf). See Giessenburg.
Charma
(Antoine), French philosopher, b. 15 Jan. 1801. In '30 he was
nominated to
the Chair of Philosophy at Caen. He was denounced for
his impiety by
the Count de Montalembert in the Chamber of peers,
and an endeavor
was made to unseat him. He wrote many philosophical
works, and an
account of Didron's Histoire de Dieu. Died 5 Aug. 1869.
Charron
(Pierre), French priest and sceptic, b. Paris, 1513. He was
an intimate
friend of Montaigne. His principal work is a Treatise on
Wisdom, 1601,
which was censured as irreligious by the Jesuits. Franck
says "the
scepticism of Charron inclines visibly to 'sensualisme'
and even to
materialism." Died Paris, 16 Nov. 1603.
Chasseboeuf de
Volney (Constantin François). See Volney.
Chastelet du or
Chatelet Lomont (Gabrielle Emilie le Tonnelier de
Breteuil),
Marquise, French savante, b. Paris, 17 Dec 1706. She was
learned in
mathematics and other sciences, and in Latin, English
and Italian. In
1740 she published a work on physical philosophy
entitled
Institutions de Physique. She afterwards made a good French
translation of
Newton's Principia. She lived some years with Voltaire
at Cirey
between 1735 and 1747, and addressed to him Doubts on Revealed
Religions,
published in 1792. She also wrote a Treatise on Happiness,
which was
praised by Condorcet.
Chastellux
(François Jean de), Marquis. A soldier, traveller and
writer, b.
Paris 1734. Wrote On Public Happiness (2 vols., Amst. 1776),
a work Voltaire
esteemed highly. He contributed to the Encyclopédie;
one article on
"Happiness," being suppressed by the censor because
it did not
mention God. Died Paris, 28 Oct. 1788.
Chatterton
(Thomas), the marvellous boy poet, b. Bristol, 20 Nov,
1752. His
poems, which he pretended were written by one Thomas Rowley
in the
fourteenth century and discovered by him in an old chest in
Redcliffe
Church, attracted much attention. In 1769 he visited London
in hopes of
rising by his talents, but after a bitter experience of
writing for the
magazines, destroyed himself in a fit of despair 25
Aug. 1770.
Several of his poems betray deistic opinions.
Chaucer
(Geoffrey), the morning star of English poetry and first
English
Humanist, b. London about 1340. In 1357 he was attached to
the household
of Lionel, third son of Edward III. He accompanied the
expedition to
France 1359-60, was captured by the French, and ransomed
by the king. He
was patronised by John of Gaunt, and some foreign
missions were
entrusted to him, one of them being to Italy, where he
met Petrarch.
All his writings show the influence of the Renaissance,
and in his
Canterbury Pilgrims he boldly attacks the vices of the
ecclesiastics.
Died 25 Oct. 1400, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
Chaumette
(Pierre Gaspard), afterwards Anaxagoras, French
revolutionary,
b. Nevers, 24 May, 1763. The son of a shoemaker, he was
in turn cabin
boy, steersman, and attorney's clerk. In early youth he
received
lessons in botany from Rousseau. He embraced the revolution
with ardor, was
the first to assume the tri-color cockade, became
popular orator
at the club of the Cordeliers, and was associated with
Proudhomme in
the journal Les Revolutions de Paris. Nominated member
of the Commune
10 Aug. 1792, he took the name of Anaxagoras to show
his little
regard for his baptismal saints. He was elected Procureur
Syndic, in
which capacity he displayed great activity. He abolished
the rod in
schools, suppressed lotteries, instituted workshops for
fallen women,
established the first lying-in-hospital, had books
sent to the
hospitals, separated the insane from the sick, founded
the
Conservatory of Music, opened the public libraries every day
(under the
ancien régime they were only open two hours per week),
replaced books
of superstition by works of morality and reason, put
a graduated tax
on the rich to provide for the burial of the poor,
and was the
principal mover in the feasts of Reason and closing of
the churches.
He was accused by Robespierre of conspiring with Cloots
"to efface
all idea of the Deity," and was guillotined 13 April, 1794.
Chaussard
(Pierre Jean Baptiste), French man of letters, b. Paris,
8 Oct. 1766. At
the Revolution he took the name of Publicola, and
published
patriotic odes, Esprit de Mirabeau, and other works. He was
preacher to the
Theophilanthropists, and became professor of belles
lettres at
Orleans. Died 9 Jan. 1823.
Chemin-Dupontes
(Jean Baptiste), b. 1761. One of the founders of
French
Theophilanthropy; published many writings, the best known of
which is
entitled What is Theophilanthropy?
Chenier (Marie
André de), French poet, b. Constantinople, 29
Oct. 1762. His
mother, a Greek, inspired him with a love for ancient
Greek
literature. Sent to college at Paris, he soon manifested his
genius by
writing eclogues and elegies of antique simplicity and
sensibility. In
1787 he came to England as Secretary of Legation. He
took part in
the legal defence of Louis XVI., eulogised Charlotte
Corday, and
gave further offence by some letters in the Journal de
Paris. He was
committed to prison, and here met his ideal in the
Comtesse de
Coigny. Confined in the same prison, to her he addressed
the touching
verses, The Young Captive (La jeune Captive). He was
executed 25
July, 1794, leaving behind, among other poems, an imitation
of Lucretius,
entitled Hermes, which warrants the affirmation of de
Chênedolle,
that "André Chénier était athée avec délices."
Chenier (Marie
Joseph de), French poet and miscellaneous writer,
brother of the
preceding, b. Constantinople, 28 Aug. 1764. He served
two years in
the army, and then applied himself to literature. His
first
successful drama, "Charles IX.," was produced in 1789, and was
followed by
others. He wrote many patriotic songs, and was made member
of the
Convention. He was a Voltairean, and in his Nouveaux Saints
(1801)
satirised those who returned to the old faith. He wrote many
poems and an
account of French literature. Died Paris, 10 Jan. 1811.
Chernuishevsky
or Tchernycheiosky (Nikolai Gerasimovich),
Russian
Nihilist, b. Saratof, 1829. Educated at the University of
St. Petersburg,
translated Mill's Political Economy, and wrote on
Superstition
and the Principles of Logic, '59. His bold romance,
What is to be
Done? was published '63. In the following year he was
sentenced to
the Siberian mines, where, after heartrending cruelties,
he has become
insane.
Chesneau Du
Marsais (César). See Dumarsais.
Chevalier
(Joseph Philippe), French chemist, b. Saint Pol, 21 March,
1806, is the
author of an able book on "The Soul from the standpoint
of Reason and
Science," Paris, '61. He died at Amiens in 1865.
Chies y Gomez
(Ramon), Spanish Freethinker, b. Medina de Pomar,
Burgos, 13 Oct.
1845. His father, a distinguished Republican,
educated him
without religion. In '65 Chies went to Madrid, and
followed a
course of law and philosophy at the University, and soon
after wrote for
a Madrid paper La Discusion. He took an active part
in the
Revolution of '65, and at the proclamation of the Republic,
'73, became
civil governor of Valencia. In '81 he founded a newspaper
El Voto
Nacional, and since '83 has edited Las Dominicales del Libre
Pensamiento,
which he also founded. Ramon Chies is one of the foremost
Freethought
champions in Spain and lectures as well as writes.
Child (Lydia
Maria) née Francis, American authoress, b. Medford, Mass.,
11 Feb. 1802.
She early commenced writing, publishing Hobomok, a Tale
of Early Times,
in '21. From '25 she kept a private school in Watertown
until '28, when
she married David Lee Child, a Boston lawyer. She, with
him, edited the
Anti-Slavery Standard, '41, etc., and by her numerous
writings did
much to form the opinion which ultimately prevailed. She
was, however,
long subjected to public odium, her heterodoxy being well
known. Her
principal work is The Progress of Religious Ideas, 3 vols.;
'55. Died
Wayland, Mass., 20 Oct. 1880. She was highly eulogised by
Wendell
Phillips.
Chilton
(William), of Bristol, was born in 1815. In early life he was
a bricklayer,
but in '41 he was concerned with Charles Southwell in
starting the
Oracle of Reason, which he set up in type, and of which
he became one
of the editors. He contributed some thoughtful articles
on the Theory
of Development to the Library of Reason, and wrote in
the Movement
and the Reasoner. Died at Bristol, 28 May, 1855.
Chubb (Thomas),
English Deist, b. East Harnham, near Salisbury, 29
Sept. 1679, was
one of the first to show Rationalism among the common
people.
Beginning by contending for the Supremacy of the Father, he
gradually
relinquished supernatural religion, and considered that Jesus
Christ was of
the religion of Thomas Chubb. Died 8 Feb. 1747, leaving
behind two
vols. which he calls A Farewell to his Readers, from which
it appears that
he rejected both revelation and special providence.
Church (Henry
Tyrell), lecturer and writer, edited Tallis's
Shakespeare,
wrote Woman and her Failings, 1858, and contributed to
the
Investigator when edited by Mr. Bradlaugh. Died 19 July, 1859.
Clapiers (Luc
de). See Vauvenargues.
Claretie (Jules
Armand Arsène), French writer, b. Limoges, 3
Dec. 1840. A
prolific writer, of whose works we only cite Free Speech,
'68; his
biographies of contemporary celebrities; and his work Camille
Desmoulins,
'75.
Clarke (John),
brought up in the Methodist connection, changed his
opinion by
studying the Bible, and became one of Carlile's shopmen. He
was tried 10
June, 1824, for selling a blasphemous libel in number 17,
vol. ix., of
The Republican, and after a spirited defence, in which
he read many of
the worst passages in the Bible, was sentenced to
three years'
imprisonment, and to find securities for good behavior
during life. He
wrote while in prison, A Critical Review of the Life,
Character, and
Miracles of Jesus, a work showing with some bitterness
much bold
criticism and Biblical knowledge. It first appeared in the
Newgate
Magazine and was afterwards published in book form, 1825 and
'39.
Clarke
(Marcus), Australian writer, b. Kensington, 1847. Went to
Victoria, '63;
joined the staff of Melbourne Argus. In '76 was made
assistant
librarian of the Public Library. He has compiled a history of
Australia, and
written The Peripatetic Philosopher (a series of clever
sketches), His
Natural Life (a powerful novel), and some poems. An able
Freethought
paper, "Civilisation without Delusion," in the Victoria
Review, Nov.
'79, was replied to by Bishop Moorhouse. The reply, with
Clarke's
answer, which was suppressed, was published in '80. Died 1884.
Claude-Constant,
author of a Freethinkers' Catechism published at
Paris in 1875.
Clavel
(Adolphe), French Positivist and physician, b. Grenoble,
1815. He has written
on the Principles of 1789, on those of the
nineteenth
century, on Positive Morality, and some educational works.
Clavel (F. T.
B.), French author of a Picturesque History of
Freemasonry,
and also a Picturesque History of Religions, 1844,
in which Christianity
takes a subordinate place.
Clayton
(Robert), successively Bishop of Killala, Cork, and Clogher,
b. Dublin,
1695. By his benevolence attracted the friendship of
Samuel Clarke,
and adopted Arianism, which he maintained in several
publications.
In 1756 he proposed, in the Irish House of Lords, the
omission of the
Nicene and Athanasian Creeds from the Liturgy, and
stated that he
then felt more relieved in his mind than for twenty
years before. A
legal prosecution was instituted, but he died, it
is said, from
nervous agitation (26 Feb. 1758) before the matter
was decided.
Cleave (John),
bookseller, and one of the pioneers of a cheap
political
press. Started the London Satirist, and Cleave's Penny
Gazette of
Variety, Oct. 14, 1837, to Jan. 20, '44. He published
many Chartist
and Socialistic works, and an abridgment of Howitt's
History of
Priestcraft. In May, '40, he was sentenced to four months'
imprisonment
for selling Haslam's Letters to the Clergy.
Clemenceau
(Georges Benjamin Eugene), French politician,
b.
Moulleron-en-Pareds, 28 Sept. 1841. Educated at Nantes and Paris,
he took his
doctor's degree in '65. His activity as Republican
ensured him a
taste of gaol. He visited the United States and acted
as
correspondent on the Temps. He returned at the time of the war
and was elected
deputy to the Assembly. In Jan. 1880 he founded La
Justice, having
as collaborateurs M. C. Pelletan, Prof. Acollas and
Dr. C.
Letourneau. As one of the chiefs of the Radical party he was
largely
instrumental in getting M. Carnot elected President.
Clemetshaw
(C.), French writer, using the name Cilwa. B. 14 Sept. 1864
of English
parents; has contributed to many journals, was delegate to
the
International Congress, London, of '87, and is editor of Le Danton.
Clemens (Samuel
Langhorne), American humorist, better known as
"Mark
Twain," b. Florida, Missouri, 30 Nov. 1835. In '55 he served
as Mississippi
pilot, and takes his pen name from the phrase used
in sounding. In
Innocents Abroad, or the New Pilgrim's Progress,
'69, by which
he made his name, there is much jesting with "sacred"
subjects. Mr.
Clemens is an Agnostic.
Clifford
(Martin), English Rationalist. Was Master of the Charterhouse,
1671, and
published anonymously a treatise of Human Reason, London,
'74, which was
reprinted in the following year with the author's
name. A short
while after its publication Laney, Bishop of Ely, was
dining in
Charterhouse and remarked, not knowing the author, "'twas no
matter if all
the copies were burnt and the author with them, because
it made every
man's private fancy judge of religion." Clifford died 10
Dec. 1677. In
the Nouvelle Biographie Générale Clifford is amusingly
described as an
"English theologian of the order des Chartreux," who,
it is added,
was "prior of his order."
Clifford
(William Kingdon), mathematician, philosopher, and moralist,
of rare
originality and boldness, b. Exeter 4 May, 1845. At the age
of fifteen he
was sent to King's College, London, where he showed an
early genius
for mathematics, publishing the Analogues of Pascal's
Theorem at the
age of eighteen. Entered Trinity College, Cambridge,
in '63. In '67
he was second wrangler. Elected fellow of his college,
he remained at
Cambridge till 1870, when he accompanied the eclipse
expedition to
the Mediterranean. The next year he was appointed
Professor of
mathematics at London University, a post he held till
his death. He
was chosen F.R.S. '74. Married Miss Lucy Lane in April,
'75. In the
following year symptoms of consumption appeared, and he
visited Algeria
and Spain. He resumed work, but in '79 took a voyage to
Madeira, where
he died 3 March. Not long before his death appeared the
first volume of
his great mathematical work, Elements of Dynamic. Since
his death have
been published The Common Sense of the Exact Sciences,
and Lectures
and Essays, in two volumes, edited by Leslie Stephen and
Mr. F. Pollock.
These volumes include his most striking Freethought
lectures and
contributions to the Fortnightly and other reviews. He
intended to
form them into a volume on The Creed of Science. Clifford
was an
outspoken Atheist, and he wrote of Christianity as a religion
which wrecked
one civilisation and very nearly wrecked another.
Cloots or
Clootz (Johann Baptist, afterwards Anacharsis) Baron du Val
de Grâce,
Prussian enthusiast, b. near Cleves, 24 June, 1755, was a
nephew of
Cornelius de Pauw. In 1780 he published the The Certainty
of the Proofs
of Mohammedanism, under the pseudonym of Ali-gier-ber,
an anagram of
Bergier, whose Certainty of the Proofs of Christianity
he parodies. He
travelled widely, but became a resident of Paris
and a warm
partisan of the Revolution, to which he devoted his large
fortune. He
wrote a reply to Burke, and continually wrote and spoke
in favor of a
Universal Republic. On 19 June, 1790, he, at the head
of men of all
countries, asked a place at the feast of Federation,
and
henceforward was styled "orator of the human race." He was, with
Paine,
Priestley, Washington and Klopstock, made a French citizen,
and in 1792 was
elected to the Convention by two departments. He
debaptised
himself, taking the name Anacharsis, was a prime mover
in the
Anti-Catholic party, and induced Bishop Gobel to resign. He
declared there
was no other God but Nature. Incurring the enmity of
Robespierre, he
and Paine were arrested as foreigners. After two
and a half
months' imprisonment at St. Lazare, he was brought to
the scaffold
with the Hébertistes, 24 March, 1794. He died calmly,
uttering
materialist sentiments to the last.
Clough (Arthur
Hugh), poet, b. Liverpool, 1 Jan. 1819. He was
educated at
Rugby, under Dr. Arnold, and at Oxford, where he showed
himself of the
Broad School. Leslie Stephen says, "He never became
bitter against
the Church of his childhood, but he came to regard its
dogmas as
imperfect and untenable." In '48 he visited Paris, and the
same year
produced his Bothie of Toper-na-Fuosich: a Long-Vacation
Pastoral.
Between '49 and '52 he was professor of English literature
in London
University. In '52 he visited the United States, where
he gained the
friendship of Emerson and Longfellow, and revised
the Dryden
translation of Plutarch's Lives. Died at Florence, 13
Nov. 1861. His
Remains are published in two volumes, and include
an essay on
Religious Tradition and some notable poems. He is the
Thyrsis of
Matthew Arnold's exquisite Monody.
Cnuzius
(Matthias). See Knutzen.
Coke (Henry),
author of Creeds of the Day, or collated opinions of
reputable
thinkers, in 2 vols, London, 1883.
Cole (Peter), a
tanner of Ipswich, was burnt for blasphemy in the
castle ditch,
Norwich, 1587. A Dr. Beamond preached to him before the
mayor,
sheriffs, and aldermen, "but he would not recant." See Hamont.
Colenso (John
William), b. 24 Jan. 1814. Was educated at St. John's,
Cambridge, and
became a master at Harrow. After acquiring fame by his
valuable
Treatise on Algebra, '49, he became first Bishop of Natal,
'54. Besides
other works, he published The Pentateuch and Book of
Joshua
Critically Examined, 1862-79, which made a great stir, and
was condemned
by both Houses of Convocation and its author declared
deposed. The
Privy Council, March '65, declared this deposition
"null and
void in law." Colenso pleaded the cause of the natives at
the time of the
Zulu War. He died 20 June, 1883.
Colins (Jean
Guillaume César Alexandre Hippolyte) Baron de,
Belgian
Socialist and founder of "Collectivism," b. Brussels, 24
Dec. 1783.
Author of nineteen volumes on Social Science. He denied
alike
Monotheism and Pantheism, but taught the natural immortality of
the soul. Died
at Paris, 12 Nov. 1859. A number of disciples propagate
his opinions in
the Philosophie de l'Avenir.
Collins
(Anthony), English Deist, b. Heston, Middlesex, 21 June,
1676. He
studied at Cambridge and afterwards at the Temple, and
became Justice
of the Peace and Treasurer of the County of Essex. He
was an intimate
friend of Locke, who highly esteemed him and made
him his
executor. He wrote an Essay on Reason, 1707; Priestcraft
in Perfection,
1710; a Vindication of the Divine Attributes, and a
Discourse on
Freethinking, 1713. This last occasioned a great outcry,
as it argued
that all belief must be based on free inquiry, and
that the use of
reason would involve the abandonment of supernatural
revelation. In
1719 he published An Inquiry Concerning Human Liberty,
a brief, pithy
defence of necessitarianism, and in 1729 A Discourse
on Liberty and
Necessity. In 1724 appeared his Discourse on the
Grounds and
Reasons of the Christian Religion, and this was followed
by The Scheme
of Literal Prophecy Considered, 1726. He was a skilful
disputant, and
wrote with great ability. He is also credited with A
Discourse
Concerning Ridicule and Irony in Writing. Died at London,
13 Dec. 1729.
Collins, says Mr. Leslie Stephen, "appears to have been
an amiable and
upright man, and to have made all readers welcome to
the use of a
free library." Professor Fraser calls him "a remarkable
man,"
praises his "love of truth and moral courage," and allows that in
answering Dr.
Samuel Clarke on the question of liberty and necessity
he "states
the arguments against human freedom with a logical force
unsurpassed by
any necessitarian." A similar testimony to Collins as
a thinker and
dialectician is borne by Professor Huxley.
Colman (Lucy
N.), American reformer, b. 26 July, 1817, has spent
most of her
life advocating the abolition of slavery, women's rights,
and
Freethought. She has lectured widely, written Reminisences in the
Life of a
Reformer of Fifty Years, and contributed to the Truthseeker
and Boston
Investigator.
Colotes, of
Lampsacus, a hearer and disciple of Epicurus, with whom he
was a favorite.
He wrote a work in favor of his master's teachings. He
held it was
unworthy of a philosopher to use fables.
Combe (Abram),
one of a noted Scotch family of seventeen, b. Edinburgh,
15 Jan. 1785.
He traded as a tanner, but, becoming acquainted with
Robert Owen,
founded a community at Orbiston upon the principle of
Owen's New
Lanark, devoting nearly the whole of his large fortune
to the scheme.
But his health gave way and he died 11 Aug. 1827. He
wrote
Metaphysical Sketches of the Old and New Systems and other
works
advocating Owenism.
Combe (Andrew),
physician, brother of the above, b. Edinburgh,
27 Oct. 1797;
studied there and in Paris; aided his brother George
in founding the
Phrenological Society; wrote popular works on the
Principles of
Physiology and the Management of Infancy. Died near
Edinburgh, 9
Aug. 1847.
Combe (George),
phrenologist and educationalist, b. Edinburgh,
21 Oct. 1788.
He was educated for the law. Became acquainted with
Spurzheim, and
published Essays on Phrenology, 1819, and founded the
Phrenological
Journal. In '28 he published the Constitution of Man,
which excited
great controversy especially for removing the chimeras of
special
providence and efficacy of prayer. In '33 he married a daughter
of Mrs.
Siddons. He visited the United States and lectured on Moral
Philosophy and
Secular Education. His last work was The Relations
between Science
and Religion, '57, in which he continued to uphold
Secular Theism.
He also published many lectures and essays. Among his
friends were
Miss Evans (George Eliot), who spent a fortnight with him
in '52. He did
more than any man of his time, save Robert Owen, for the
cause of
Secular education. Died at Moor Park, Surrey, 14 Aug. 1858.
Combes (Paul),
French writer, b. Paris, 13 June, 1856. Has written
on Darwinism,
'83, and other works popularising science.
Commazzi
(Gian-Battista), Count author of Politica e religione trovate
insieme nella
persona di Giesù Cristo, Nicopoli [Vienna] 4 vols.,
1706-7, in
which he makes Jesus to be a political impostor. It was
rigorously
confiscated at Rome and Vienna.
Comparetti
(Domenico), Italian philologist, b. Rome in 1835. Signor
Comparetti is
Professor at the Institute of Superior Studies, Rome,
and has written
many works on the classic writers, in which he evinces
his Pagan
partialities.
Comte (Isidore
Auguste Marie François Xavier), French philosopher,
mathematician
and reformer, b. at Montpelier, 12 Jan. 1798. Educated at
Paris in the
Polytechnic School, where he distinguished himself by his
mathematical
talent. In 1817 he made the acquaintance of St. Simon,
agreeing with
him as to the necessity of a Social renovation based
upon a mental
revolution. On the death of St. Simon ('25) Comte
devoted himself
to the elaboration of an original system of scientific
thought, which,
in the opinion of some able judges, entitles him to
be called the
Bacon of the nineteenth century. Mill speaks of him as
the superior of
Descartes and Leibniz. In '25 he married, but the
union proved
unhappy. In the following year he lectured, but broke
down under an
attack of brain fever, which occasioned his detention
in an asylum.
He speedily recovered, and in '28 resumed his lectures,
which were
attended by men like Humboldt, Ducrotay, Broussais, Carnot,
etc. In '30 he
put forward the first volumes of his Course of Positive
Philosophy,
which in '42 was completed by the publication of the sixth
volume. A
condensed English version of this work was made by Harriet
Martineau, '53.
In '45 Comte formed a passionate Platonic attachement
to Mme.
Clotilde de Vaux, who died in the following year, having
profoundely
influenced Comte's life. In consequence of his opinions,
he lost his
professorship, and was supported by his disciples--Mill,
Molesworth and
Grote, in England, assisting. Among other works, Comte
published A
General View of Positivism, '48, translated by Dr. Bridges,
'65; A System
of Positive Polity, '51, translated by Drs. Bridges,
Beesley, F.
Harrison, etc., '75-79; and A Positive Catechism, '54,
translated by
Dr. Congreve, '58. He also wrote on Positive Logic,
which he
intended to follow with Positive Morality and Positive
Industrialism.
Comte was a profound and suggestive thinker. He
resolutely sets
aside all theology and metaphysics, coordinates
the sciences
and substitutes the service of man for the worship of
God. Mr. J.
Cotter Morison says "He belonged to that small class
of rare minds,
whose errors are often more valuable and stimulating
than other
men's truths." He died of cancer in the stomach at Paris,
5 Sept. 1857.
Condillac
(Etienne Bonnot de), French philosopher, b. Grenoble,
about 1715. His
life was very retired, but his works show much
acuteness. They
are in 23 vols., the principal being A Treatise on the
Sensations,
1764; A Treatise on Animals, and An Essay on the Origin
of Human
Knowledge. In the first-named he shows that all mental life
is gradually
built up out of simple sensations. Died 3 Aug. 1780.
Condorcet
(Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas Caritat, Marquis de),
French
philosopher and politician, b. Ribemont, Picardy, 17
Sept. 1743.
Dedicated to the Virgin by a pious mother, he was kept
in girl's
clothes until the age of 11. Sent to a Jesuit's school,
he soon gave up
religion. At sixteen he maintained a mathematical
thesis in the
presence of Alembert. In the next year he dedicated
to Turgot a
Profession of Faith. After some mathematical works, he
was made member
of the Academy, of which he was appointed perpetual
secretary,
1773. In 1776 he published his atheistic Letters of a
Theologian. He
also wrote biographies of Turgot and Voltaire, and
in favor of
American independence and against negro slavery. In
1791 he
represented Paris in the National Assembly, of which he
became
Secretary. It was on his motion that, in the following year,
all orders of
nobility were abolished. Voting against the death of
the king and
siding with the Gironde drew on him the vengeance of
the extreme
party. He took shelter with Madame Vernet, but fearing to
bring into
trouble her and his wife, at whose instigation he wrote his
fine Sketch of
the Progress of the Human Mind while in hiding, he left,
but, being
arrested, died of exhaustion or by poison self-administered,
at Bourg la
Reine, 27 March, 1794.
Condorcet
(Sophie de Grouchy Caritat, Marquise de), wife of above,
and sister of
General Grouchy and of Mme. Cabanis, b. 1765. She
married
Condorcet 1786, and was considered one of the most beautiful
women of her
time. She shared her husband's sentiments and opinions
and, while he
was proscribed, supported herself by portrait
painting. She
was arrested, and only came out of prison after the
fall of
Robespierre. She translated Adam Smith's Theory of the Moral
Sentiments,
which she accompanied with eight letters on Sympathy,
addressed to
Cabanis. She died 8 Sept. 1822. Her only daughter married
Gen. Arthur
O'Connor.
Confucius (Kung
Kew) or Kung-foo-tsze, the philosopher Kung, a
Chinese sage,
b. in the State of Loo, now part of Shantung, about
B.C. 551. He
was distinguished by filial piety and learning. In his
nineteenth year
he married, and three years after began as a teacher,
rejecting none
who came to him. He travelled through many states. When
past middle age
he was appointed chief minister of Loo, but finding
the Duke
desired the renown of his name without adopting his counsel,
he retired, and
devoted his old age to editing the sacred classics
of China. He
died about B.C. 478. His teaching, chiefly found in the
Lun-Yu, or
Confucian Analects, was of a practical moral character,
and did not
include any religious dogmas.
Congreve
(Richard), English Positivist, born in 1819. Educated at
Rugby under T.
Arnold, and Oxford 1840, M.A. 1843; was fellow of
Wadham College
1844-54. In '55 he published his edition of Aristotle
Politics. He
became a follower of Comte and influenced many to embrace
Positivism.
Translated Comte's Catechism of Positive Philosophy, 1858,
and has written
many brochures. Dr. Congreve is considered the head
of the strict
or English Comtists, and has long conducted a small
"Church of
Humanity."
Connor
(Bernard), a physician, b. Co. Kerry, of Catholic family,
1666. He
travelled widely, and was made court physician to John
Sobieski, King
of Poland. He wrote a work entitled Evangelium Medici
(1697), in
which he attempts to account for the Christian miracles
on natural
principles. For this he was accused of Atheism. He died
in London 27
Oct. 1698.
Constant de
Rebecque (Henri Benjamin), Swiss writer, b. Lausanne,
25 Oct. 1767,
and educated at Oxford, Erlangen and Edinburgh. In
1795 he entered
Paris as a protégé of Mme. de Stael, and in 1799
became a member
of the Tribunal. He opposed Buonaparte and wrote
on Roman
Polytheism and an important work on Religion Considered in
its Source, its
Forms and its Developments (6 vols.; 1824-32). Died
8 Dec. 1830.
Constant professed Protestantism, but was at heart a
sceptic, and
has been called a second Voltaire. A son was executor
to Auguste
Comte.
Conta (Basil),
Roumanian philosopher, b. Neamtza 27 Nov. 1845. Studied
in Italy and
Belgium, and became professor in the University of Jassy,
Moldavia. In
'77 he published in Brussels, in French, a theory of
fatalism, which
created some stir by its boldness of thought.
Conway (Moncure
Daniel), author, b. in Fredericksburg, Stafford
co. Virginia,
17 March, 1832. He entered the Methodist ministry '50,
but changing
his convictions through the influence of Emerson and
Hicksite
Quakers, entered the divinity school at Cambridge, where
he graduated in
'54 and became pastor of a Unitarian church until
dismissed for
his anti-slavery discourses. In '57 he preached in
Cincinnati and
there published The Natural History of the Devil, and
other
pamphlets. In '63 Mr. Conway came to England and was minister
of South Place
from the close of '63 until his return to the States
in '84. Mr.
Conway is a frequent contributor to the press. He has
also published
The Earthward Pilgrimage, 1870, a theory reversing
Bunyan's
Pilgrim's Progress; collected a Sacred Anthology from the
various sacred
books of the world 1873, which he used in his pulpit;
has written on
Human Sacrifices, 1876, and Idols and Ideals, 1877. His
principal work
is Demonology and Devil Lore, 1878, containing much
information on
mythology. He also issued his sermons under the title of
Lessons for the
Day, two vols., 1883, and has published a monograph on
the Wandering
Jew, a biography of Emerson, and is at present engaged
on a life of
Thomas Paine.
Cook
(Kenningale Robert), LL.D., b. in Lancashire 26 Sept. 1845, son
of the vicar of
Stallbridge. When a boy he used to puzzle his mother
by such
questions as, "If God was omnipotent could he make what had
happened not
have happened." He was intended for the Church, but
declined to
subscribe the articles. Graduated at Dublin in '66, and
took LL.D. in
'75. In '77 he became editor of the Dublin University
Magazine, in
which appeared some studies of the lineage of Christian
doctrine and
traditions afterwards published under the title of The
Fathers of
Jesus. Dr. Cook wrote several volumes of choice poems. Died
July, 1886.
Cooper (Anthony
Ashley), see Shaftesbury.
Cooper (Henry),
barrister, b. Norwich about 1784. He was a schoolfellow
of Wm. Taylor
of Norwich. He served as midshipman at the battle of the
Nile, but
disliking the service became a barrister, and acquired some
fame by his
spirited defence of Mary Ann Carlile, 21 July, 1821, for
which the
report of the trial was dedicated to him by R. Carlile. He
was a friend of
Lord Erskine, whose biography he commenced. Died 19
Sept. 1824.
Cooper (John
Gilbert), poet, b. Thurgaton Priory, Notts, 1723. Educated
at Westminster
School and Trinity College, Cambridge. An enthusiastic
disciple of
Lord Shaftesbury. Under the name of "Philaretes" he
contributed to
Dodsley's Museum. In 1749 he published a Life of
Socrates, for
which he was coarsely attacked by Warburton. He wrote
some poems under
the signature of Aristippus. Died Mayfair, London,
14 April, 1769.
Cooper (Peter),
a benevolent manufacturer, b. N. York, 12 Feb. 1791. He
devoted over
half a million dollars to the Cooper Institute, for
the secular
instruction and elevation of the working classes. Died
4 April, 1883.
Cooper
(Robert), Secularist writer and lecturer, b. 29 Dec. 1819,
at
Barton-on-Irwell, near Manchester. He had the advantage of being
brought up in a
Freethought family. At fourteen he became teacher
in the
Co-operative Schools, Salford, lectured at fifteen, and
by seventeen
became an acknowledged advocate of Owenism, holding a
public
discussion with the Rev. J. Bromley. Some of his lectures were
published--one
on Original Sin sold twelve thousand copies--when he was
scarcely
eighteen. The Holy Scriptures Analysed (1832) was denounced
by the Bishop
of Exeter in the House of Lords. Cooper was dismissed
from a
situation he had held ten years, and in 1841 became a Socialist
missionary in
the North of England and Scotland. At Edinburgh (1845)
he wrote Free
Agency and Orthodoxy, and compiled the Infidel's Text
Book. About '50
he came to London, lecturing with success at John
Street
Institution. In '54 he started the London Investigator, which
he edited for
three years. In it appears his lectures on "Science
v.
Theology," "Admissions of Distinguished Men," etc. Failing
health
obliged him to
retire leaving the Investigator to "Anthony Collins"
(W. H.
Johnson), and afterwards to "Iconoclast" (C. Bradlaugh). At
his last
lecture he fainted on the platform. In 1858 he remodelled
his Infidel
Text-Book into a work on The Bible and Its Evidences. He
devoted himself
to political reform until his death, 3 May, 1868.
Cooper
(Thomas), M.D., LL.D., natural philosopher, politician,
jurist and
author, b. London, 22 Oct. 1759. Educated at Oxford, he
afterwards
studied law and medicine; was admitted to the bar and lived
at Manchester,
where he wrote a number of tracts on "Materialism,"
"Whether
Deity be a Free Agent," etc., 1789. Deputed with James
Watt, the
inventor, by the Constitutional clubs to congratulate
the Democrats
of France (April, 1792), he was attacked by Burke
and replied in
a vigorous pamphlet. In '94 he published Information
Concerning
America, and in the next year followed his friend Priestly
to
Philadelphia, established himself as a lawyer and was made judge. He
also conducted
the Emporium of Arts and Sciences in that city. He was
Professor of
Medicine at Carlisle College, '12, and afterwards held
the chairs both
of Chemistry and Political Economy in South Carolina
College, of
which he became President, 1820-34. This position he was
forced to
resign on account of his religious views. He translated
from Justinian
and Broussais, and digested the Statutes of South
Carolina. In
philosophy a Materialist, in religion a Freethinker,
in politics a
Democrat, he urged his views in many pamphlets. One on
The Right of
Free Discussion, and a little book on Geology and the
Pentateuch, in
reply to Prof. Silliman, were republished in London
by James
Watson. Died at Columbia, 11 May, 1840. [1]
[1] So varied
was the activity of T. Cooper during his long life that
his works in
the British Museum were catalogued as by six different
persons of the
same name. I pointed this out, and the six single
gentlemen will
be rolled into one.
Coornhert (Dirk
Volkertszoon), Dutch humanist, poet and writer,
b. Amsterdam,
1522. He travelled in his youth through Spain
and Portugal.
He set up as an engraver at Haarlem, and became
thereafter
notary and secretary of the city of Haarlem. He had a
profound horror
of intolerance, and defended liberty against Beza and
Calvin. The
clergy vituperated him as a Judas and as instigated by
Satan, etc.
Bayle, who writes of him as Theodore Koornhert, says he
communed
neither with Protestants nor Catholics. The magistrates of
Delft drove him
out of their city. He translated Cicero's De Officiis,
and other
works. Died at Gouda, 20 Oct. 1590.
Cordonnier de
Saint Hyacinthe. See Saint-Hyacinthe (Themiseuil de).
Corvin-Wiersbitski
(Otto Julius Bernhard von), Prussian Pole of noble
family, who
traced their descent from the Roman Corvinii, b. Gumbinnen,
12 Oct. 1812.
He served in the Prussian army, where he met his friend
Friedrich von
Sallet; retired into the Landwehr 1835, went to Leipsic
and entered
upon a literary career, wrote the History of the Dutch
Revolution,
1841; the History of Christian Fanaticism, 1845, which
was suppressed
in Austria. He took part with the democrats in '48;
was condemned
to be shot 15 Sept. '49, but the sentence was commuted;
spent six
years' solitary confinement in prison; came to London,
became
correspondent to the Times; went through American Civil War,
and afterwards
Franco-Prussian War, as a special correspondent. He
has written a
History of the New Time, 1848-71. Died since 1886.
Cotta
(Bernhard), German geologist, b. Little Zillbach, Thuringia,
24 Oct. 1808.
He studied at the Academy of Mining, in Freiberg,
where he was
appointed professor in '42. His first production, The
Dendroliths,
'32, proved him a diligent investigator. It was followed
by many
geological treatises. Cotta did much to support the nebular
hypothesis and
the law of natural development without miraculous
agency. He also
wrote on phrenology. Died at Freiburg, 13 Sept 1879.
Cotta (C.
Aurelius), Roman philosopher, orator and statesman,
b. B.C. 124. In
'75 he became Consul. On the expiration of his
office he
obtained Gaul as a province. Cicero had a high opinion of
him and gives
his sceptical arguments in the third book of his De
Natura Deorum.
Courier (Paul
Louis), French writer, b. Paris, 4 Jan. 1772. He entered
the army and
became an officer of artillery, serving with distinction
in the Army of
the Republic. He wrote many pamphlets, directed against
the clerical
restoration, which place him foremost among the literary
men of the
generation. His writings are now classics, but they brought
him nothing but
imprisonment, and he was apparently assassinated,
10 April, 1825.
He had a presentiment that the bigots would kill him.
Coventry
(Henry), a native of Cambridgeshire, b. about 1710, Fellow
of Magdalene
College, author of Letters of Philemon to Hydaspus on
False Religion
(1736). Died 29 Dec. 1752.
Coward
(William), M.D., b. Winchester, 1656. Graduated at Wadham
College,
Oxford, 1677. Settled first at Northampton, afterwards
at London.
Published, besides some medical works, Second Thoughts
Concerning
Human Soul, which excited much indignation by denying
natural
immortality. The House of Commons (17 March, 1704) ordered
his work to be
burnt. He died in 1725.
Cox (the Right
Rev. Sir George William), b. 1827, was educated at
Rugby and
Oxford, where he took B.C.L. in 1849. Entered the Church,
but has devoted
himself to history and mythology. His most pretentious
work is
Mythology of the Aryan Nations (1870). He has also written
an Introduction
to Comparative Mythology and several historical
works. In 1886
he became Bishop of Bloemfontein. He is credited with
the authorship
of the English Life of Jesus, published under the name
of Thomas
Scott. At the Church Congress of 1888 he read an heretical
paper on
Biblical Eschatology. His last production is a Life of Bishop
Colenso, 2
vols, 1888.
Coyteux
(Fernand), French writer, b. Ruffec, 1800. Author of a
materialistic
system of philosophy, Brussels, 1853 Studies on
physiology,
Paris, 1875, etc.
Craig (Edward
Thomas), social reformer, b. at Manchester 4
Aug. 1804. He
was present at the Peterloo massacre '19; helped to form
the Salford
Social Institute and became a pioneer of co-operation. In
'31 he became
editor of the Lancashire Co-operator. In Nov. of the same
year he
undertook the management of a co-operative farm at Rahaline,
co. Clare. Of
this experiment he has written an history, '72. Mr. Craig
has edited
several journals and contributed largely to Radical and
co-operative
literature. He has published a memoir of Dr. Travis and
at the age of
84 he wrote on The Science of Prolonging Life.
Cramer (Johan
Nicolai), Swedish writer, b. Wisby, Gottland, 18
Feb. 1812. He
studied at Upsala and became Doctor of Philosophy
'36; ordained
priest in '42; he resigned in '58. In religion he
denies
revelation and insists on the separation of Church and
State. Among
his works we mention Separation from the Church, a
Freethinker's
annotations on the reading of the Bible, Stockholm,
1859. A
Confession of Faith; Forward or Back? (1862). He has also
written on the
Punishment of Death (1868), and other topics.
Cranbrook (Rev.
James.) Born of strict Calvinistic parents about
1817. Mr.
Cranbrook gradually emancipated himself from dogmas, became
a teacher, and
for sixteen years was minister of an Independent Church
at Liscard,
Cheshire. He also was professor at the Ladies' College,
Liverpool, some
of his lectures there being published '57. In Jan. '65,
he went to
Albany Church, Edinburgh, but his views being too broad
for that
congregation, he left in Feb. '67 but continued to give
Sunday lectures
until his death, 6 June, 1869. In '66 he published
Credibilia: an
Inquiry into the grounds of Christian faith and two
years later The
Founders of Christianity, discourses on the origin of
Christianity.
Other lectures on Human Depravity, Positive Religion,
etc., were
published by Thomas Scott.
Cranch
(Christopher Pearse), American painter and poet, b. Alexandria,
Virginia, 8
March, 1813, graduated at divinity school, Cambridge,
Mass. '35, but
left the ministry in '42. He shows his Freethought
sentiments in
Satan, a Libretto, Boston, '74, and other works.
Craven (M. B.),
American, author of a critical work on the Bible
entitled
Triumph of Criticism, published at Philadelphia, 1869.
Cremonini
(Cesare), Italian philosopher, b. Cento, Ferrara, 1550, was
professor of
philosophy at Padua from 1591 to 1631, when he died. A
follower of
Aristotle, he excited suspicion by his want of religion and
his teaching
the mortality of the soul. He was frequently ordered by
the Jesuits and
the Inquisition to refute the errors he gave currency
to, but he was
protected by the Venetian State, and refused. Like most
of the
philosophers of his time, he distinguished between religious
and philosophic
truth. Bayle says. "Il a passé pour un esprit fort,
qui ne croyait
point l'immortalité de l'âme." Larousse says, "On peut
dire qu'il
n'était pas chrétien." Ladvocat says his works "contain
many things
contrary to religion."
Cross (Mary
Ann). See Eliot (George).
Crousse (Louis
D.), French Pantheistic philosopher, author of
Principles, or
First Philosophy, 1839, and Thoughts, 1845.
Curtis (S. E.),
English Freethinker, author of Theology Displayed,
1842. He has
been credited with The Protestant's Progress to
Infidelity. See
Griffith (Rees). Died 1847.
Croly (David
Goodman), American Positivist, b. New York, 3
Nov. 1829. He
graduated at New York University in '54, and was
subsequently a
reporter on the New York Herald. He became editor of
the New York
World until '72. From '71 to '73 he edited The Modern
Thinker, an
organ of the most advanced thought, and afterwards the
New York
Graphic. Mr. Croly has written a Primer of Positivism, '76,
and has
contributed many articles to periodicals. His wife, Jane
Cunningham, who
calls herself "Jennie June," b. 1831, also wrote in
The Modern
Thinker.
Cross (Mary
Ann), see Eliot (George).
Crozier (John
Beattie), English writer of Scottish border parentage,
b. Galt,
Ontario, Canada, 23 April, 1849. In youth he won a scholarship
to the grammar
school of the town, and thence won another scholarship
to the Toronto
University, where he graduated '72, taking the
University and
Starr medals. He then came to London determined to study
the great problems
of religion and civilisation. He took his diploma
from the London
College of Physicians in '73. In '77 he wrote his first
essay,
"God or Force," which, being rejected by all the magazines, he
published as a
pamphlet. Other essays on the Constitution of the World,
Carlyle,
Emerson, and Spencer being also rejected, he published them in
a book entitled
The Religion of the Future, '80, which fell flat. He
then started
his work Civilisation and Progress, which appeared in
'85, and was
also unsuccessful until republished with a few notices
in '87, when it
received a chorus of applause, for its clear and
original
thoughts. Mr. Crozier is now engaged on his Autobiography,
after which he
proposes to deal with the Social question.
Cuffeler
(Abraham Johann), a Dutch philosopher and doctor of law,
who was one of
the first partizans of Spinoza. He lived at Utrecht
towards the end
of the seventeenth century, and wrote a work on
logic in three
parts entitled Specimen Artis Ratiocinandi, etc.,
published
ostensibly at Hamburg, but really at Amsterdam or Utrecht,
1684. It was
without name but with the author's portrait.
Cuper (Frans),
Dutch writer, b. Rotterdam. Cuper is suspected to have
been one of
those followers of Spinoza, who under pretence of refuting
him, set forth
and sustained his arguments by feeble opposition. His
work entitled
Arcana Atheismi Revelata, Rotterdam 1676, was denounced
as written in
bad faith. Cuper maintained that the existence of God
could not be
proved by the light of reason.
Cyrano de Bergerac
(Savinien), French comic writer, b. Paris 6 March,
1619. After
finishing his studies and serving in the army in his youth
he devoted
himself to literature. His tragedy "Agrippine" is full of
what a
bookseller called "belles impiétés," and La Monnoye relates that
at its
performance the pit shouted "Oh, the wretch! The Atheist! How
he mocks at
holy things!" Cyrano knew personally Campanella, Gassendi,
Lamothe Le
Vayer, Linière, Rohault, etc. His other works consist of
a short
fragment on Physic, a collection of Letters, and a Comic
History of the
States and Empires of the Moon and the Sun. Cyrano
took the idea
of this book from F. Godwin's Man in the Moon, 1583,
and it in turn
gave rise to Swift's Gulliver's Travels and Voltaire's
Micromegas.
Died Paris, 1655.
Czolbe
(Heinrich), German Materialist, b. near Dantzic, 30 Dec. 1819,
studied
medicine at Berlin, writing an inaugural dissertation on
the Principles
of Physiology, '44. In '55 he published his New
Exposition of
Sensationalism, in which everything is resolved into
matter and
motion, and in '65 a work on The Limits and Origin of Human
Knowledge. He
was an intimate friend of Ueberweg. Died at Königsberg,
19 Feb. 1873.
Lange says "his life was marked by a deep and genuine
morality."
D'Ablaing. See
Giessenburg.
Dale (Antonius
van), Dutch writer, b. Haarlem, 8 Nov. 1638. His work
on oracles was
erudite but lumbersome, and to it Fontenelle gave the
charm of style.
It was translated into English by Mrs. Aphra Behn,
under the title
of The History of Oracles and the Cheats of Pagan
Priests, 1699.
Van Dale, in another work on The Origin and Progress
of Idolatry and
Superstition, applied the historical method to his
subject, and
showed that the belief in demons was as old and as
extensive as
the human race. He died at Haarlem, 28 Nov. 1708.
Damilaville
(Etienne Noël), French writer, b. at Bordeaux, 1721. At
first a
soldier, then a clerk, he did some service for Voltaire, who
became his
friend. He also made the friendship Diderot, d'Alembert,
Grimm, and
d'Holbach. He contributed to the Encyclopédie, and in
1767 published
an attack on the theologians, entitled Theological
Honesty. The
book entitled Christianity Unveiled [see Boulanger and
Holbach] was
attributed by Voltaire, who called it Impiety Unveiled,
and by La Harpe
and Lalande to Damilaville. Voltaire called him
"one of
our most learned writers." Larousse says "he was an ardent
enemy of
Christianity." He has also been credited with a share in
the System of
Nature. Died 15 Dec. 1768.
Dandolo
(Vincenzo) Count, Italian chemist, b. Venice, 26 Oct. 1758,
wrote
Principles of Physical Chemistry, a work in French on The New
Men, in which
he shows his antagonism to religion, and many useful
works on vine,
timber, and silk culture. Died Varessa, 13 Dec. 1819.
Danton (Georges
Jacques), French revolutionist, b. Arcis sur Aube, 28
Oct. 1759. An
uncle wished him to enter into orders, but he preferred
to study law.
During the Revolution his eloquence made him conspicuous
at the Club of
Cordeliers, and in Feb. 1791, he became one of the
administrators
of Paris. One of the first to see that after the flight
of Louis XVI.
he could no longer be king, he demanded his suspension,
and became one
of the chief organisers of the Republic. In the alarm
caused by the
invasion he urged a bold and resolute policy. He was a
member of the
Convention and of the Committee of Public Safety. At the
crisis of the
struggle with Robespierre, Danton declined to strike
the first blow
and disdained to fly. Arrested March, 1794, he said
when interrogated
by the judge, "My name is Danton, my dwelling will
soon be in
annihilation; but my name will live in the Pantheon of
history."
He maintained his lofty bearing on the scaffold, where he
perished 5
April, 1794. For his known scepticism Danton was called
fils de
Diderot. Carlyle calls him "a very Man."
Dapper
(Olfert), Dutch physician, who occupied himself with history and
geography, on
which he produced important works. He had no religion
and was
suspected of Atheism. He travelled through Syria, Babylonia,
etc., in 1650.
He translated Herodotus (1664) and the orations of
the late Prof.
Caspar v. Baerli (1663), and wrote a History of the
City of
Amsterdam, 1663. Died at Amsterdam 1690.
Darget
(Etienne), b. Paris, 1712; went to Berlin in 1744 and became
reader and
private secretary to Frederick the Great (1745-52), who
corresponded
with him afterwards. Died 1778.
Darwin (Charles
Robert), English naturalist, b. Shrewsbury,
12 Feb. 1809.
Educated at Shrewsbury, Edinburgh University, and
Cambridge. He
early evinced a taste for collecting and observing
natural
objects. He was intended for a clergyman, but, incited by
Humboldt's
Personal Narrative, resolved to travel. He accompanied
Captain Fitzroy
in the "Beagle" on a voyage of exploration, '31-36,
which he narrated
in his Voyage of a Naturalist Round the World, which
obtained great
popularity. In '39 he married, and in '42 left London
and settled at
Down, Kent. His studies, combined with the reading of
Lamarck and
Malthus, led to his great work on The Origin of Species
by means of
Natural Selection, '59, which made a great outcry and
marked an
epoch. Darwin took no part in the controversy raised by the
theologians,
but followed his work with The Fertilisation of Orchids,
'62; Cross and
Self Fertilisation of Plants, '67; Variations of
Plants and
Animals under Domestication, '65; and in '71 The Descent
of Man and
Selection in relation to Sex, which caused yet greater
consternation
in orthodox circles. The following year he issued The
Expression of
the Emotions of Men and Animals. He also published
works on the
Movements of Plants, Insectivorous Plants, the Forms of
Flowers, and
Earthworms. He died 19 April, 1882, and was buried in
Westminster
Abbey, despite his expressed unbelief in revelation. To
a German
student he wrote, in '79, "Science has nothing to do with
Christ, except
in so far as the habit of scientific research makes
a man cautious
in admitting evidence. For myself I do not believe
that there ever
has been any revelation." In his Life and Letters
he relates that
between 1836 and 1842 he had come to see "that the
Old Testament
was no more to be trusted than the sacred books of the
Hindoos."
He rejected design and said "I for one must be content to
remain an
Agnostic."
Darwin
(Erasmus), Dr., poet, physiologist and philosopher, grandfather
of the above,
was born at Elston, near Newark, 12 Dec. 1731. Educated
at Chesterfield
and Cambridge he became a physician, first at Lichfield
and afterwards
at Derby. He was acquainted with Rousseau, Watt and
Wedgwood. His
principal poem, The Botanic Garden was published in 1791,
and The Temple
of Nature in 1803. His principal work is Zoomania,
or the laws of
organic life (1794), for which he was accused of
Atheism. He was
actually a Deist. He also wrote on female education
and some papers
in the Philosophical Transactions. Died at Derby,
18 April, 1802.
Daubermesnil
(François Antoine), French conventionalist. Elected
deputy of Tarn
in 1792. Afterwards became a member of the Council of
Five Hundred.
He was one of the founders of Theophilanthropy. Died
at Perpignan
1802.
Daudet
(Alphonse), French novelist, b. at Nîmes, 13 May 1840, author
of many popular
romances, of which we mention L'Evangeliste, '82,
which has been
translated into English under the title Port Salvation.
Daunou (Pierre
Claude François), French politician and historian,
b. Boulogne, 18
Aug. 1761. His father entered him in the congregation
of the Fathers
of the Oratory, which he left at the Revolution. The
department of
Calais elected him with Carnot and Thomas Paine to
the Convention.
After the Revolution he became librarian at the
Pantheon. He
was a friend of Garat, Cabanis, Chenier, Destutt Tracy,
Ginguené and
Benj. Constant. Wrote Historical Essay on the Temporal
Power of the
Popes, 1810. Died at Paris, 20 June, 1840, noted for
his
benevolence.
Davenport
(Allen), social reformer, b. 1773. He contributed to
Carlile's
Republican; wrote an account of the Life, Writings and
Principles of
Thomas Spence, the reformer (1826); and published a
volume of
verse, entitled The Muses' Wreath (1827). Died at Highbury,
London, 1846.
Davenport
(John), Deist, b. London, 8 June, 1789, became a teacher. He
wrote An
Apology for Mohammed and the Koran, 1869; Curiositates
Eroticoe
Physiologæ, or Tabooed Subjects Freely Treated, and several
educational
works. Died in poverty 11 May, 1877.
David of
Dinant, in Belgium, Pantheistic philosopher of the twelfth
century. He is
said to have visited the Papal Court of Innocent
III. He shared
in the heresies of Amalric of Chârtres, and his work
Quaterini was
condemned and burnt (1209). He only escaped the stake
by rapid
flight. According to Albert the Great he was the author of
a philosophical
work De Tomis, "Of Subdivisions," in which he taught
that all things
were one. His system was similar to that of Spinoza.
David (Jacques
Louis), French painter, born at Paris, 31 Aug. 1748,
was made
painter to the king, but joined the Jacobin Club, became
a member of the
Convention, voted for the king's death and for the
civic
festivals, for which he made designs. On the restoration he
was banished.
Died at Brussels, 29 Dec. 1825. David was an honest
enthusiast and
a thorough Freethinker.
Davidis or
David (Ferencz), a Transylvanian divine, b. about
1510. He was
successively a Roman Catholic, a Lutheran and an
Antitrinitarian.
He went further than F. Socinus and declared there
was "as
much foundation for praying to the Virgin Mary and other
dead saints as
to Jesus Christ." He was in consequence accused of
Judaising and
thrown into prison at Deva, where he died 6 June, 1579.
Davies (John
C.), of Stockport, an English Jacobin, who in 1797
published a
list of contradictions of the Bible under the title of The
Scripturian's
Creed, for which he was prosecuted and imprisoned. The
work was
republished by Carlile, 1822, and also at Manchester, 1839.
Davidson
(Thomas), bookseller and publisher, was prosecuted by the Vice
Society in Oct.
1820, for selling the Republican and a publication
of his own,
called the Deist's Magazine. For observations made in
his defence he
was summoned and fined £100, and he was sentenced to
two years'
imprisonment in Oakham Gaol. He died 16 Dec. 1826.
Debierre
(Charles), French writer, author of Man Before History, 1888.
De Dominicis.
See Dominicis.
De Felice
(Francesco), Italian writer, b. Catania, Sicily, 1821,
took part in
the revolution of '43, and when Garibaldi landed in
Sicily was
appointed president of the provisional council of war. Has
written on the
reformation of elementary schools.
De Greef
(Guillaume Joseph), advocate at Brussels Court of Appeal,
b. at Brussels,
9 Oct. 1842. Author of an important Introduction to
Sociology,
1886. Wrote in La Liberté, 1867-73, and now writes in La
Societé
Nouvelle.
De Gubernatis
(Angelo), Italian Orientalist and writer, b. Turin,
7 April, 1840;
studied at Turin University and became doctor of
philosophy. He
studied Sanskrit under Bopp and Weber at Berlin. Sig. de
Gubernatis has
adorned Italian literature with many important
works, of which
we mention his volumes on Zoological Mythology,
which has been
translated into English, '72: and on the Mythology of
Plants. He has
compiled and in large part written a Universal History
of Literature,
18 vols. '82-85; edited La Revista Europea and the
Revue
Internationale, and contributed to many publications. He is a
brilliant
writer and a versatile scholar.
De Harven
(Emile Jean Alexandre), b. Antwerp, 23 Sept. 1837, the
anonymous
author of a work on The Soul: its Origin and Destiny
(Antwerp,
1879).
Dekker (Eduard
Douwes), the greatest Dutch writer and Freethinker of
this century,
b. Amsterdam, 2 March, 1820. In '39 he accompanied his
father, a
ship's captain, to the Malayan Archipelago. He became officer
under the Dutch
government in Sumatra, Amboina, and Assistant-Resident
at Lebac, Java.
He desired to free the Javanese from the oppression of
their princes,
but the government would not help him and he resigned
and returned to
Holland, '56. The next four years he spent, in poverty,
vainly seeking
justice for the Javanese. In '60 he published under the
pen name of
"Multatuli" Max Havelaar, a masterly indictment of the
Dutch rule in
India, which has been translated into German, French
and English.
Then follow his choice Minnebrieven (Love Letters),
'61;
Vorstenschool (A School for Princes), and Millioenen Studiën
(Studies on
Millions). His Ideën, 7 vols. '62-79, are full of the
boldest heresy.
In most of his works religion is attacked, but in the
Ideas faith is
criticised with much more pungency and satire. He wrote
"Faith is
the voluntary prison-cell of reason." He was an honorary
member of the
Freethought Society, De Dageraad, and contributed to its
organ. During
the latter years of his life he lived at Wiesbaden, where
he died 19 Feb.
1887. His corpse was burned in the crematory at Gotha.
De Lalande (see
Lalande).
Delambre (Jean
Baptiste Joseph), French astronomer, b. Amiens,
19 Sept. 1749,
studied under Lalande and became, like his master,
an Atheist. His
Tables of the Orbit of Uranus were crowned by the
Academy, 1790.
In 1807 he succeeded Lalande as Professor of Astronomy
at the Collége
de France. He is the author of a History of Astronomy
in five
volumes, and of a number of astronomical tables and other
scientific
works He was appointed perpetual secretary of the Academy of
Sciences. Died
19 Aug. 1822, and was buried at Père la Chaise. Cuvier
pronouncing a
discourse over his grave.
De la Ramee.
See Ramée.
Delboeuf
(Joseph Remi Léopold), Belgian writer, b. Liège, 30
Sept. 1831; is
Professor at the University of Liège, and has
written
Psychology as a Natural Science, its Present and its Future;
Application of
the Experimental Method to the Phenomena of the Soul,
'73, and other
works. In his Philosophical Prolegomena to Geometry
he suggests
that even mathematical axioms may have an empirical origin.
Delbos (Léon),
linguist, b. 20 Sept. 1849 of Spanish father and Scotch
mother.
Educated in Paris, Lycée Charlemagne. Is an M.A. of Paris and
officier
d'Académie. Speaks many languages, and is a good Arabic and
Sanskrit
scholar. Has travelled widely and served in the Franco-German
War. Besides
many educational works, M. Delbos has written L'Athée,
the Atheist, a
Freethought romance '79, and in English The Faith in
Jesus not a New
Faith, '85. He has contributed to the Agnostic Annual,
and is a
decided Agnostic.
Delepierre
(Joseph Octave), Belgian bibliophile, b. Bruges, 12 March,
1802. Was for
thirty-five years secretary of Legation to England. His
daughter
married N. Truebner, who published his work L'Enfer, 1876,
and many other
bibliographical studies. Died London, 18 Aug. 1879.
Delescluze
(Louis Charles), French journalist and revolutionary,
b. Dreux, 2
Oct. 1809, was arrested in '34 for sedition. Implicated in
a plot in '35,
he took refuge in Belgium. In '48 he issued at Paris La
Revolution
Démocratique et Sociale, but was soon again in prison. He
was banished,
came to England with Ledru Rollin, but returning to
France in '53
was arrested. In '68 he published the Réveil, for
which he was
again fined and sentenced to prison for ten years. In
'59 he was amnestied
and imprisoned. He became head of the Commune
Committee of
Public Safety, and died at the barricade, 25 May, 1871.
Deleyre
(Alexandre), French writer, b. Porbats, near Bordeaux, 6
Jan. 1726.
Early in life he entered the order of Jesuits, but changed
his faith and
became the friend of Rousseau and Diderot. He contributed
to the
Encyclopédie, notably the article "Fanatisme," and published
an analysis of
Bacon and works on the genius of Montesquieu and Saint
Evremond, and a
History of Voyages. He embraced the Revolution with
ardor, was made
deputy to the Convention, and in 1795 was made member
of the
Institute. Died at Paris, 27 March, 1797.
Delisle de
Sales. See Isoard Delisle (J. B. C.)
Dell (John
Henry), artist and poet, b. 11 Aug. 1832. Contributed
to Progress,
wrote Nature Pictures, '71, and The Dawning Grey, '85,
a volume of
vigorous verse, imbued with the spirit of democracy and
freethought.
Died 31 Jan. 1888.
Deluc
(Adolphe), Professor of Chemistry at Brussels, b. Paris,
1 Sept. 1811.
Collaborated on La Libre Recherche.
De Maillet. See
Maillet (Benoît de).
Democritus, a
wealthy Atheistic philosopher, b. Abdera, Thrace,
B.C. 460. He
travelled to Egypt and over a great part of Asia,
and is also
said to have visited India. He is supposed to have
been acquainted
with Leucippus, and sixty works were ascribed to
him. Died B.C.
357. He taught that all existence consisted of atoms,
and made the
discovery of causes the object of scientific inquiry. He
is said to have
laughed at life in general, which Montaigne says
is better than
to imitate Heraclitus and weep, since mankind are
not so unhappy
as vain. Democritus was the forerunner of Epicurus,
who improved
his system.
Demonax, a
cynical philosopher who lived in the second century of
the Christian
era and rejected all religion. An account of him was
written by
Lucian.
Demora
(Gianbattista), director of the Libero Pensatore of Milan,
and author of
some dramatic works.
Denis (Hector),
Belgian advocate and professor of political economy
and philosophy
at Brussels University, b. Braine-le-Comte, 29 April,
1842. Has
written largely on social questions and contributed to La
Liberté, la
Philosophie Positive, etc. Is one of the Council of the
International
Federation of Freethinkers.
Denslow (Van
Buren), American writer, author of essays on Modern
Thinkers, 1880,
to which Colonel Ingersoll wrote an introduction. He
contributed a
paper on the value of irreligion to the Religio
Philosophic
journal of America, Jan. '78, and has written in the
Truthseeker and
other journals.
Denton (William
F.), poet, geologist, and lecturer, b. Darlington,
Durham, 8 Jan.
1823. After attaining manhood he emigrated to the
United States,
'48, and in '56 published Poems for Reformers. He was
a prolific
writer, and constant lecturer on temperance, psychology,
geology, and
Freethought. In '72 he published Radical Discourses
on Religious
Subjects (Boston, '72), and Radical Rhymes, '79. He
travelled to
Australasia, and died of a fever while conducting
scientific
explorations in New Guinea 26 Aug. 1883.
De Paepe
(César) Dr., Belgian Socialist, b. Ostend, 12 July, 1842. He
was sent to the
college of St. Michel, Brussels. He obtained the
Diploma of
Candidate of Philosophy, but on the death of his father
became a
printer with Désiré Brismée (founder of Les Solidaires,
a Rationalist
society). Proudhon confided to him the correction of
his works. He
became a physician and is popular with the workmen's
societies. He
was one of the foremost members of the International and
attended all
its congresses, as well as those of the International
Federation of
Freethinkers. He has written much on public hygiene,
political
economy, and psychology, collaborating in a great number of
the most
advanced journals. Dr. De Paepe is a short, fair, energetic
man, capable
both as a speaker and writer.
Depasse
(Hector), French writer, b. at Armentières in 1843, is
editor of La
République Française, and member of the Paris Municipal
Council. He has
written a striking work on Clericalism, in which he
urges the
separation of Church and State, 1877; and is author of many
little books on
Contemporary Celebrities, among them are Gambetta,
Bert, Ranc,
etc.
De Ponnat. See
Ponnat (--de), Baron.
De Pontan. See
Ponnat.
De Potter
(Agathon Louis), Belgian economist, b. Brussels, 11
Nov. 1827. Has
written many works on Social Science, and has
collaborated to
La Ragione (Reason), '56, and La Philosophie de
l'Avenir.
De Potter
(Louis Antoine Joseph), Belgian politician and writer,
father of the
above, b. of noble family, Bruges, 26 April, 1786. In
1811 he went to
Italy and lived ten years at Rome. In '21 he wrote the
Spirit of the
Church, in 6 vols., which are put on the Roman Index. A
strong upholder
of secular education in Belgium, he was arrested
more than once
for his radicalism, being imprisoned for eighteen
months in '28.
In Sept. '30 he became a member of the provisional
government. He
was afterwards exiled and lived in Paris, where he wrote
a philosophical
and anti-clerical History of Christianity, in 8 vols.,
1836-37. He also
wrote a Rational Catechism, 1854, and a Rational
Dictionary,
1859, and numerous brochures. Died Bruges, 22 July, 1859.
Deraismes
(Maria), French writer and lecturer, b. Paris, 15
Aug. 1835. She
first made her name as a writer of comedies. She wrote
an appeal on
behalf of her sex, Aux Femmes Riches, '65. The Masonic
Lodge of Le
Pecq, near Paris, invited her to become a member, and she
was duly
installed under the Grand Orient of France. The first female
Freemason, was
president of the Paris Anti-clerical Congress of 1881,
and has written
much in her journal, Le Républicain de Seine et Oise.
De Roberty
(Eugene). See Roberty.
Desbarreaux
(Jacques Vallée), Seigneur, French poet and sceptic,
b. Paris, 1602,
great-nephew of Geoffrey Vallée, who was burnt in
1574. Many
stories are related of his impiety, e.g. the well-known
one of his
having a feast of eggs and bacon. It thundered, and Des
Barreaux,
throwing the plate out of window, exclaimed, "What an amount
of noise over
an omelette." It was said he recanted and wrote a poem
beginning,
"Great God, how just are thy chastisements." Voltaire,
however,
assigns this poem to the Abbé Levau. Died at Chalons,
9 May, 1673.
Descartes
(René), French philosopher, b. at La Haye, 31 March,
1596. After
leaving college he entered the army in '16, and fought
in the battle
of Prague. He travelled in France and Italy, and in
'29 settled in
Holland. In '37 he produced his famous Discourses upon
the Method of
Reasoning Well, etc., and in '41 his Meditations upon
First
Philosophy. This work gave such offence to the clergy that he
was forced to
fly his country "parce qu'il y fait trop chaud pour
lui." He
burnt his Traite du Monde (Treatise on the World) lest
he should incur
the fate of Gallilei. Though a Theist, like Bacon,
he puts aside
final causes. He was offered an asylum by Christina,
Queen of
Sweden, and died at Stockholm 11 Feb. 1650.
Deschamps
(Léger-Marie), known also as Dom Deschamps, a French
philosopher, b.
Rennes, Poitiers, 10 Jan. 1716. He entered the Order
of Benedictines,
but lost his faith by reading an abridgment of
the Old
Testament. He became correspondent of Voltaire, Rousseau,
d'Alembert,
Helvetius, and other philosophers. "Ce prêtre athée,"
as Ad. Franck
calls him, was the author of a treatise entitled La
Vérité, ou le
Vrai Système, in which he appears to have anticipated
all the leading
ideas of Hegel. God, he says, as separated from
existing
things, is pure nothingness. An analysis of his remarkable
work, which
remained in manuscript for three-quarters of a century,
has been
published by Professor Beaussire (Paris, 1855). Died at
Montreuil-Bellay,
19 April 1774.
Deslandes
(André François Boureau), b. Pondichery, 1690. Became member
of the Berlin
Academy and wrote numerous works, mostly under the veil
of anonymity,
the principal being A Critical History of Philosophy,
3 vols(1737).
His Pygmalion, a philosophical romance, was condemned by
the parliament
of Dijon, 1742. His Reflexions sur les grands hommes
qui sont mort
en Plaisantant (Amsterdam, 1732) was translated into
English and
published in 1745 under the title, Dying Merrily. Another
work directed
against religion was On the certainty of Human Knowledge,
a philosophical
examination of the different prerogatives of reason
and faith
(London, 1741). Died Paris, 11 April, 1757.
Des Maizeaux
(Pierre), miscellaneous writer, b. Auvergne, 1673. He
studied at
Berne and Geneva, and became known to Bayle who introduced
him to Lord
Shaftesbury, with whom he came to London, 1699. He edited
the works of
Bayle, Saint Evremond and Toland, whose lives he wrote,
as well as
those of Hales and Chillingworth. Anthony Collins was his
friend, and at
his death left him his manuscripts. These he transferred
to Collins's
widow and they were burnt. He repented and returned the
money, 6 Jan.
1730, as the wages of iniquity. He became Secretary of
the Royal
Society of London, where he died, 11 July, 1745.
Desmoulins
(Lucié Simplice Camille Benôit), French revolutionary
writer, b.
Guise, 2 March, 1760. He was a fellow-student of Robespierre
at Paris, and
became an advocate and an enthusiastic reformer. In
July '89 he
incited the people to the siege of the Bastille,
and thus began
the Revolution. On 29 Dec. 1790 he married Lucile
Laridon-Duplessis.
He edited Le Vieux Cordelier and the Révolutions
de France et de
Brabant, in which he stated that Mohammedanism was
as credible as
Christianity. He was a Deist, preferring Paganism to
Christianity.
Both creeds were more or less unreasonable; but, folly
for folly, he
said, I prefer Hercules slaying the Erymanthean boar
to Jesus of
Nazareth drowning two thousand pigs. He was executed
with Danton, 5
April 1794. His amiable wife, Lucile, who was an
Atheist (b.
1770), in a few days shared his fate (April 13). Carlyle
calls
Desmoulins a man of genius, "a fellow of infinite shrewdness,
wit--nay,
humor."
Des Periers
(Jean Bonaventure), French poet and sceptic,
b. Arnay le
Duc, about 1510. He was brought up in a convent,
only to detest
the vices of the monks. In 1535 he lived in Lyons
and assisted
Dolet. He probably knew Rabelais, whom he mentions as
"Francoys
Insigne." Attached to the court of Marguerite of Valois,
he defended
Clement Marot when persecuted for making a French version
of the Psalms.
He wrote the Cymbalum Mundi, a satire upon religion,
published under
the name of Thomas de Clenier à Pierre Tryocan,
i.e., Thomas
Incrédule à Pierre Croyant, 1537. It was suppressed
and the
printer, Jehan Morin, imprisoned. Des Periers fled and
died (probably
by suicide, to escape persecution) 1544. An English
version of
Cymbalum Mundi was published in 1712. P. G. Brunet, the
bibliographer,
conjectures that Des Periers was the author of the
famous
Atheistic treatise, The Three Impostors.
Destriveaux
(Pierre Joseph), Belgian lawyer and politician, b. Liége,
13 March, 1780.
Author of several works on public right. Died
Schaerbeck
(Brussels), 3 Feb. 1853.
Destutt de
Tracy (Antoine Louis de Claude) Count, French materialist
philosopher, b.
20 July, 1754. His family was of Scotch origin. At
first a
soldier, he was one of the first noblemen at the Revolution
to despoil
himself of his title. A friend of Lafayette, Condorcet,
and Cabanis, he
was a complete sceptic in religion; made an analysis
of Dupuis'
Origine de tous les Cultes (1804), edited Montesquieu and
Cabanis, was made
a member of the French Academy (1808), and wrote
several
philosophical works, of which the principal is Elements of
Ideology. He
was a great admirer of Hobbes. Died Paris, 9 March, 1836.
Des Vignes
(Pietro), secretary to Frederick II. (1245-49). Mazzuchelli
attributes to
him the treatise De Tribus Impostoribus.
Detrosier
(Rowland), social reformer and lecturer, b. 1796, the
illegitimate
son of a Manchester man named Morris and a Frenchwoman. In
his early years
he was "for whole days without food." Self-educated,
he established
the first Mechanics' Institute in England at Hulme,
gave Sunday
scientific lectures, and published several discourses
in favor of
secular education. He became secretary of the National
Political
Union. He was a Deist. Like Bentham, who became his friend,
he bequeathed
his body for scientific purposes. Died in London,
23 Nov. 1834.
Deubler
(Konrad). The son of poor parents, b. Goisern, near Ischl,
Upper Austria,
26 Nov. 1814. Self-taught amid difficulties,
he became the
friend of Feuerbach and Strauss, and was known as
"the
Peasant Philosopher." In 1854 he was indicted for blasphemy,
and was
sentenced to two years' hard labor and imprisonment during
pleasure. He
was incarcerated from 7 Dec. '54, till Nov. '56 at Brünn,
and afterwards
at Olmutz, where he was released 24 March, 1857. He
returned to his
native place, and was visited by Feuerbach. In '70
he was made
Burgomaster by his fellow-townsmen. Died 30 March, 1884.
Deurhoff
(Willem), Dutch writer, b. Amsterdam, March 1650. Educated
for the Church,
he gave himself to philosophy, translated the works of
Descartes, and
was accused of being a follower of Spinoza. Forced to
leave his
country, he took refuge in Brabant, but returned to Holland,
where he died
10 Oct. 1717. He left some followers.
De Wette. (See
Wette M. L. de).
D'Holbach. See
Holbach (P. H. D. von), Baron.
Diagoras, Greek
poet, philosopher, and orator, known as "the Atheist,"
b. Melos. A
pupil of Democritus, who is said to have freed him from
slavery. A
doubtful tradition reports that he became an Atheist after
being the
victim of an unpunished perjury. He was accused (B.C. 411)
of impiety, and
had to fly from Athens to Corinth, where he died. A
price was put
upon the Atheist's head. His works are not extant,
but several
anecdotes are related of him, as that he threw a wooden
statue of
Hercules into the fire to cook a dish of lentils, saying the
god had a
thirteenth task to perform; and that, being on his flight
by sea
overtaken by a storm, hearing his fellow-passengers say it
was because an
Atheist was on board, he pointed to other vessels
struggling in
the same storm without being laden with a Diagoras.
Di Cagno Politi
(Niccola Annibale), Italian Positivist, b. Bari,
1857. Studied
at Naples under Angiulli, has written on modern culture
and on
experimental philosophy in Italy, and contributed articles on
Positivism to
the Rivista Europea.
Diderot
(Denis), French philosopher, b. Langres, 6 Oct. 1713. His
father, a
cutler, intended him for the Church. Educated by Jesuits,
at the age of
twelve he received the tonsure. He had a passion for
books, but,
instead of becoming a Jesuit, went to Paris, where he
supported
himself by teaching and translating. In 1746 he published
Philosophic
Thoughts, which was condemned to be burnt. It did much
to advance
freedom of opinion. Three years later his Letters on the
Blind
occasioned his imprisonment at Vincennes for its materialistic
Atheism.
Rousseau, who called him "a transcendent genius," visited
Diderot in
prison, where he remained three years. Diderot projected the
famous
Encyclopédie, which he edited with Alembert, and he contributed
some of the
most important articles. With very inadequate recompense,
and amidst
difficulties that would have appalled an ordinary editor,
Diderot superintended
the undertaking for many years (1751-65). He also
contributed to
other important works, such as Raynal's Philosophic
History,
L'Esprit, by Helvetius, and The System of Nature and other
works of his
friend D'Holbach. Diderot's fertile mind also produced
dramas, essays,
sketches, and novels. Died 30 July, 1784. Comte calls
Diderot
"the greatest thinker of the eighteenth century."
Diercks
(Gustav), German author of able works on the History of the
Development of
Human Spirit (Berlin, 1881-2) and on Arabian Culture
in Spain, 1887.
Is a member of the German Freethinkers' Union.
Dilke (Ashton
Wentworth), b. 1850. Educated at Cambridge, travelled
in Russia and
Central Asia, and published a translation of Turgenev's
Virgin Soil. He
purchased and edited the Weekly Dispatch; was returned
as M.P. for
Newcastle in 1880, but, owing to ill health, resigned in
favor of John
Morley, and died at Algiers 12 March, 1883.
Dinter (Gustav
Friedrich), German educationalist, b. Borna, near
Leipsic, 29
Feb. 1760. His Bible for Schoolmasters is his best-known
work. It sought
to give rational notes and explanations of the Jew
books, and
excited much controversy. Died at Konigsberg, 29 May, 1831.
Dippel (Johann
Konrad), German alchemist and physician, b. 10
Aug. 1672, at Frankenstein,
near Darmstadt. His Papismus vapulans
Protestantium
(1698) drew on him the wrath of the theologians of
Giessen, and he
had to flee for his life. Attempting to find out the
philosopher's
stone, he discovered Prussian blue. In 1705 he published
his satires
against the Protestant Church, Hirt und eine Heerde,
under the name
of Christianus Democritos. He denied the inspiration
of the Bible,
and after an adventurous life in many countries died
25 April, 1734.
Dobrolyubov
(Nikolai Aleksandrovich), Russian author, b. 1836, at
Nijni Novgorod,
the son of a priest. Educated at St. Petersburg, he
became a
radical journalist. His works were edited in four vols. by
Chernuishevsky.
Died 17 Nov. 1861.
Dodel-Port
(Prof. Arnold), Swiss scientist, b. Affeltrangen, Thurgau,
16 Oct. 1843.
Educated at Kreuzlingen, he became in '63 teacher in
the Oberschule
in Hauptweil; then studied from '64-'69 at Geneva,
Zürich, and
Munich, becoming privat docent in the University of
Zürich, '70. In
'75 he published The New History of Creation. In
'78 he issued
his world-famous Botanical Atlas, and was in '80 made
Professor of
Botany in the Zürich University and Director of the
Botanical
Laboratory. He has also written Biological Fragments (1885),
the Life and
Letters of Konrad Deubler, "the peasant philosopher"
(1886), and has
just published Moses or Darwin? a School Question,
1889. Dr.
Dodel-Port is an hon. member of the London Royal Society
and
Vice-President of the German Freethinkers' Union.
Dodwell
(Henry), eldest son of the theologian of that name, was
b.
Shottesbrooke, Berkshire, about the beginning of the eighteenth
century. He was
educated at Magdalen Hall, when he proceeded B.A.,
9 Feb. 1726. In
'42 he published a pamphlet entitled Christianity
not Founded on
Argument, which in a tone of grave irony contends that
Christianity
can only be accepted by faith. He was brought up to the
law and was a
zealous friend of the Society for the Promotion of Arts,
Manufactures,
and Commerce. Died 1784.
Doebereiner
(Johann Wolfgang), German chemist, b. Bavaria, 15
Dec. 1780. In
1810 he became Professor of Chemistry at Jena, where
he added much
to science. Died 24 March, 1849. He was friend and
instructor to
Goethe.
Dolet
(Etienne), a learned French humanist, b. Orleans 3 Aug. 1509. He
studied in
Paris, Padua and Venice. For his heresy he had to fly
from Toulouse
and lived for some time at Lyons, where he established
a
printing-press and published some of his works, for which he was
imprisoned. He
was acquainted with Rabelais, Des Periers, and other
advanced men of
the time. In 1543 the Parliament condemned his books
to be burnt,
and in the next year he was arrested on a charge of
Atheism. After
being kept two years in prison he was strangled and
burnt, 3 Aug.
1546. It is related that seeing the sorrow of the crowd,
he said:
"Non dolet ipe Dolet, sed pia turba dolet."--Dolet grieves
not, but the
generous crowd grieves. His goods being confiscated,
his widow and
children were left to beggary. "The French language,"
says A. F.
Didot, "owes him much for his treatises, translations,
and
poesies." Dolet's biographer, M. Joseph Boulmier, calls him "le
Christ de la
pensée libre." Philosophy has alone the right, says
Henri Martin,
to claim Dolet on its side. His English biographer,
R. C. Christie,
says he was "neither a Catholic nor a Protestant."
Dominicis
(Saverio Fausto de), Italian Positivist philosopher,
b. Buonalbergo,
1846. Is Professor of Philosophy at Bari, and has
written on
Education and Darwinism.
Dondorf (Dr.
A.), See Anderson (Marie) in Supplement.
Doray de
Longrais (Jean Paul), French man of letters. b. Manvieux,
1736. Author of
a Freethought romance, Faustin, or the Philosophical
Age. Died at
Paris, 1800.
Dorsch
(Eduard), German American Freethinker, b. Warzburg 10
Jan. 1822. He studied
at Munich and Vienna. In '49 he went to America
and settled in
Monroe, Michigan, where he published a volume of poems,
some being
translations from Swinburne. Died 10 Jan. 1887.
Dorsey (J. M.),
author of the The True History of Moses, and others,
an attack on
the Bible, published at Boston in 1855.
Draparnaud
(Jacques Philippe Raymond), French doctor, b. 3 June, 1772,
at Montpelier,
where he became Professor of Natural History. His
discourses on
Life and Vital Functions, and on the Philosophy of
the Sciences
and Christianity (1801), show his scepticism. Died 1
Feb. 1805.
Draper (John
William), scientist and historian, b. St. Helens,
near Liverpool,
5 May 1811. The son of a Wesleyan minister, he was
educated at
London University. In '32 he emigrated to America,
where he was
Professor of Chemistry and Natural History in New
York
University. He was one of the inventors of photography and the
first who
applied it to astronomy. He wrote many scientific works,
notably on
Human Physiology. His history of the American Civil War
is an important
work, but he is chiefly known by his History of the
Intellectual
Development of Europe and History of the Conflict of
Religion and
Science, which last has gone through many editions and
been translated
into all the principal languages. Died 4 Jan. 1882.
Dreyfus
(Ferdinand Camille), author of an able work on the Evolution
of Worlds and
Societies, 1888.
Droysen (Johann
Gustav), German historian, b. Treptoir, 6 July,
1808. Studied
at Berlin; wrote in the Hallische Jahrbücher; was
Professor of
History at Keil, 1840; Jena '51 and Berlin '59. Has edited
Frederick the
Great's Correspondence, and written other important
works, some in
conjunction with his friend Max Duncker. Died 15
June, 1882.
Drummond (Sir
William), of Logie Almond, antiquary and author,
b. about 1770;
entered Parliament as member for St. Mawes, Cornwall,
1795. In the
following year he became envoy to the court of Naples,
and in 1801
ambassador to Constantinople. His principal work is
Origines, or
Remarks on the Origin of several Empires, States,
and Cities (4
vols. 1824-29). He also printed privately The OEdipus
Judaicus, 1811.
It calls in question, with much boldness and learning,
many legends of
the Old Testament, to which it gave an astronomical
signification.
It was reprinted in '66. Sir William Drummond also
wrote
anonymously Philosophical Sketches of the Principles of Society,
1795. Died at
Rome, 29 March, 1828.
Duboc (Julius)
German writer and doctor of philosophy b. Hamburg, 10
Oct. 1829.
Educated at Frankfurt and Giessen, is a clever journalist,
and has
translated the History of the English Press. Has written
an Atheistic
work, Das Leben Ohne Gott (Life without God), with the
motto from
Feuerbach "No religion is my religion, no philosophy my
philosophy,"
1875. He has also written on the Psychology of Love,
and other
important works.
Dubois
(Pierre), a French sceptic, who in 1835 published The True
Catechism of
Believers--a work ordered by the Court of Assizes to
be suppressed,
and for which the author (Sept. '35) was condemned to
six months'
imprisonment and a fine of one thousand francs. He also
wrote The
Believer Undeceived, or Evident Proofs of the Falsity and
Absurdity of
Christianity; a work put on the Index in '36.
Du Bois-Reymond
(Emil), biologist, of Swiss father and French
mother, b.
Berlin, 7 Nov. 1818. He studied at Berlin and Bonn for
the Church, but
left it to follow science, '37. Has become famous as
a physiologist,
especially by his Researches in Animal Electricity,
'48-60. With
Helmholtz he has done much to establish the new era
of positive
science, wrongly called by opponents Materialism. Du
Bois-Reymond
holds that thought is a function of the brain and nervous
system, and
that "soul" has arisen as the gradual results of natural
combinations,
but in his Limits of the Knowledge of Nature, '72, he
contends that
we must always come to an ultimate incomprehensible. Du
Bois-Reymond
has written on Voltaire and Natural Science, '68; La
Mettrie, '75;
Darwin versus Galiani, '78; and Frederick II. and
Rousseau, '79.
Since '67 he has been perpetual secretary of the
Academy of
Sciences, Berlin.
Dubuisson (Paul
Ulrich), French dramatist and revolutionary, b. Lauat,
1746. A friend
of Cloots he suffered with him on the scaffold, 24
March, 1794.
Dubuisson
(Paul), living French Positivist, author of Grand Types
of Humanity.
Du Chatelet
Lomont. See Chastelet.
Duclos (Charles
Pinot), witty French writer, b. Dinan, 12 Feb. 1704. He
was admitted
into the French Academy, 1747 and became its secretary,
1755. A friend
of Diderot and d'Alembert. His Considerations sur les
Moeurs is still
a readable work. Died 27 March, 1772.
Ducos (Jean
François), French Girondist, b. Bordeaux in 1765. Elected
to the
Legislative Assembly, he, on the 26th Oct. 1791, demanded
the complete
separation of the State from religion. He shared the
fate of the
Girondins, 31 Oct. 1793, crying with his last breath,
"Vive la
Republique!"
Du Deffand
(Marie), Marchioness, witty literary Frenchwoman,
b. 1697.
Chamfort relates that when young and in a convent she preached
irreligion to
her young comrades. The abbess called in Massillon, to
whom the little
sceptic gave her reasons. He went away saying "She
is
charming." Her house in Paris was for fifty years the resort of
eminent authors
and statesmen. She corresponded for many years with
Horace Walpole,
D'Alembert and Voltaire. Many anecdotes are told of
her; thus, to
the Cardinal de Polignac, who spoke of the miracle of
St. Denis
walking when beheaded, she said "Il n'y a que le premier
pas qui
coûte." Died 24 Sept. 1780. To the curé of Saint Sulpice,
who came to her
death-bed, she said "Ni questions, ni raisons, ni
sermons."
Larousse calls her "Belle, instruite, spirituelle mais
sceptique et
materialiste."
Dudgeon
(William), a Berwickshire Deist, whose works were published
(privately
printed at Edinburgh) in 1765.
Dudnevant (A.
L. A. Dupin), Baroness. See Sand (Georges).
Duehring (Eugen
Karl), German writer, b. Berlin, 12 Jan. 1833; studied
law. He has,
though blind, written many works on science and political
economy, also a
Critical History of Philosophy, '69-78, and Science
Revolutionized,
'78. In Oct. 1879, his death was maliciously reported.
Dulaure
(Jacques Antoine), French archæologist and historian,
b.
Clermont-Ferrand, 3 Dec. 1755. In 1788-90 he published six volumes
of a
description of France. He wrote many pamphlets, including one
on the private
lives of ecclesiastics. Elected to the Convention in
1792, he voted
for the death of the King. Proscribed as a Girondist,
Sept. 1793, he
fled to Switzerland. He was one of the Council of Five
Hundred,
1796-98. Dulaure wrote a learned Treatise on Superstitions,
but he is best
known by his History of Paris, and his Short History
of Different
Worships, 1825, in which he deals with ancient fetishism
and phallic
worship. Died Paris, 9 Aug. 1835.
Dulaurens
(Henri Joseph). French satirist, b. Douay, 27 March, 1719. He
was brought up
in a convent, and made a priest 12 Nov. 1727. Published
a satire
against the Jesuits, 1761, he was compelled to fly to
Holland, where
he lived in poverty. He edited L'Evangile de la Raison,
a collection of
anti-Christian tracts by Voltaire and others, and
wrote
L'Antipapisme révelé in 1767. He was in that year condemned
to perpetual
imprisonment for heresy, and shut in the convent of
Mariabaum,
where he died 1797. Dulaurens was caustic, cynical and
vivacious. He
is also credited with the Portfolios of a Philosopher,
mostly taken
from the Analysis of Bayle, Cologne, 1770.
Dulk (Albert
Friedrich Benno), German poet and writer, b. Konigsberg,
17 June, 1819;
he became a physician, but was expelled for aiding
in the
Revolution of '48. He travelled in Italy and Egypt. In '65
he published
Jesus der Christ, embodying rationalism in prose and
verse. He has
also written Stimme der Menschheit, 2 vols., '76,
'80, and Der
Irrgang des Lebens Jesu, '84, besides numerous plays
and pamphlets.
Died 29 Oct. 1884.
Dumont (Léon),
French writer, b. Valenciennes, 1837. Studied for
the bar, but
took to philosophy and literature. He early embraced
Darwinism, and
wrote on Hæckel and the Theory of Evolution, '73. He
wrote in La
Revue Philosophique, and other journals. Died Valenciennes,
17 Jan. 1877.
Dumarsais
(César Chesneau), French grammarian and philosopher,
b. Marseilles,
17 July, 1676. When young he entered the congregation
of the oratory.
This society he soon quitted, and went to Paris,
where he
married. A friend of Boindin and Alembert, he wrote against
the pretensions
of Rome and contributed to the Encyclopédie. He is
credited with
An Analysis of the Christian Religion and with the
celebrated
Essai sur les Préjugés, par Mr. D. M., but the latter was
probably
written by Holbach, with notes by Naigeon. Le Philosophe,
published in
L'Evangile de la Raison by Dulaurens, was written by
Voltaire. Died
11 June, 1756. Dumarsais was very simple in character,
and was styled
by D'Alembert the La Fontaine of philosophers.
Dumont (Pierre
Etienne Louis), Swiss writer, b. Geneva, 18 July,
1759. Was
brought up as a minister, but went to France and became
secretary to
Mirabeau. After the Revolution he came to England, where
he became
acquainted with Bentham, whose works he translated. Died
Milan, 29 Sept.
1829.
Duncker
(Maximilian Wolfgang), German historian, b. Berlin, 15
Oct. 1811. His
chief work, the History of Antiquity, 1852-57,
thoroughly
abolishes the old distinction of sacred and profane
history, and
freely criticises the Jewish records. A translation in
six volumes has
been made by E. Abbot. Duncker took an active part
in the events
of '48 and '50, and was appointed Director-General of
the State
Archives. Died 24 July, 1886.
Dupont (Jacob
Louis), a French mathematician and member of the
National
Convention, known as the Abbé Dupont, who, 14 Dec. 1792,
declared
himself an Atheist from the tribune of the Convention. Died
at Paris in
1813.
Dupont de
Nemours (Pierre Samuel), French economist, b. Paris, 14
Dec. 1739. He
became President of the Constituent Assembly, and was
a
Theophilantrophist. Died Delaware, U.S.A., 6 Aug. 1817.
Dupuis (Charles
François), French astronomer and philosopher,
b.
Trie-le-Chateau, 16 Oct. 1742. He was educated for the Church, which
he left, and
married in 1775. He studied under Lalande, and wrote on
the origin of
the constellations, 1781. In 1788 he became a member of
the Academy of
Inscriptions. At the Revolution he was chosen a member
of the
Convention. During the Reign of Terror he saved many lives at
his own risk.
He was afterwards one of the Council of Five Hundred, and
president of
the legislative body. His chief work is on the Origin of
Religions, 7
vols., 1795, in which he traces solar worship in various
faiths,
including Christianity. This has been described as "a monument
of the
erudition of unbelief." Dupuis died near Dijon, 29 Sept. 1809.
Dutrieux
(Pierre Joseph), Belgian physician, b. Tournai, 19 July,
1848. Went to
Cairo and became a Bey. Died 1 Jan. 1889.
Dutton
(Thomas), M.A., theatrical critic, b. London, 1767. Educated
by the
Moravians. In 1795 he published a Vindication of the Age of
Reason by
Thomas Paine. He translated Kotzebue's Pizarro in Peru,
1799, and
edited the Dramatic Censor, 1800, and the Monthly Theatrical
Reporter, 1815.
Duvernet
(Théophile Imarigeon), French writer, b. at Ambert
1730. He was
brought up a Jesuit, became an Abbé, but mocked at
religion.
Duvernet became tutor to Saint Simon. For a political
pamphlet he was
imprisoned in the Bastille. While here he wrote a
curious and
rare romance, Les Devotions de Mme. de Bethzamooth. He
wrote on
Religious Intolerance, 1780, and a History of the Sorbonne,
1790, but is
best known by his Life of Voltaire (1787). In 1793
he wrote a
letter to the Convention, in which he declares that
he renounces
the religion "born in a stable between an ox and an
ass." Died
in 1796.
Dyas (Richard
H.), captain in the army. Author of The Upas. He resided
long in Italy
and translated several of the works of C. Voysey.
Eaton (Daniel
Isaac), bookseller, b. about 1752, was educated at the
Jesuits'
College, St. Omer. Being advised to study the Bible, he did
so, with the
result of discarding it as a revelation. In 1792 he was
prosecuted for
publishing Paine's Rights of Man, but the prosecution
fell through.
He afterwards published Politics for the People, which
was also
prosecuted, 1793, as was his Political Dictionary, 1796. To
escape
punishment, he fled to America, and lived there for three years
and a half.
Upon returning to England, his person and property were
seized. Books
to the value of £2,800 were burnt, and he was imprisoned
for fifteen
months. He translated from Helvetius and sold at his
"Rationcinatory
or Magazine for Truths and Good Sense," 8 Cornhill,
in 1810, The
True Sense and Meaning of the System of Nature. The Law
of Nature had
been previously translated by him. In '11 he issued
the first and
second parts of Paine's Age of Reason, and on 6 March,
'12, was tried
before Lord Ellenborough on a charge of blasphemy
for issuing the
third and last part. He was sentenced to eighteen
months'
imprisonment and to stand in the pillory. The sentence evoked
Shelley's
spirited Letter to Lord Ellenborough. Eaton translated and
published
Freret's Preservative against Religious Prejudices, 1812,
and shortly
before his death, at Deptford, 22 Aug. 1814, he was again
prosecuted for
publishing George Houston's Ecce Homo.
Eberhard (Johann
August), German Deist, b. Halberstadt, 31 Aug. 1739,
was brought up
in the church, but persecuted for heresy in his New
Apology for
Socrates, 1772, was patronised by Frederick the Great,
and appointed
Professor of Philosophy at Halle, where he opposed
the idealism of
Kant and Fichte. He wrote a History of Philosophy,
1788. Died
Halle, 7 Jan. 1809.
Eberty
(Gustav), German Freethinker, b. 2 July, 1806. Author of some
controversial
works. Died Berlin, 10 Feb. 1887.
Echtermeyer
(Ernst Theodor), German critic, b. Liebenwerda, 1805. He
studied at
Halle and Berlin, and founded, with A. Ruge, the Hallische
Jahrbücher,
which contained many Freethought articles, 1837-42. He
taught at Halle
and Dresden, where he died, 6 May, 1844.
Edelmann
(Johann Christian), German Deist, b. Weissenfels, Saxony,
9 July, 1698;
studied theology in Jena, joined the Moravians,
but left them
and every form of Christianity, becoming an adherent
of Spinozism.
His principal works are his Unschuldige Wahrheiten,
1735 (Innocent
Truths), in which he argues that no religion is of
importance, and
Moses mit Aufgedecktem Angesicht (Moses Unmasked),
1740, an attack
on the Old Testament, which, he believed, proceeded
from Ezra; Die
Göttlichkeit der Vernunft (The Divinity of Reason),
1741, and Christ
and Belial. His works excited much controversy, and
were publicly
burnt at Frankfort, 9 May, 1750. Edelmann was chased
from Brunswick
and Hamburg, but was protected by Frederick the Great,
and died at
Berlin, 15 Feb. 1767. Mirabeau praised him, and Guizot
calls him a
"fameux esprit fort."
Edison (Thomas
Alva), American inventor, b. Milan, Ohio, 10
Feb. 1847. As a
boy he sold fruit and papers at the trains. He read,
however,
Gibbon, Hume and other important works before he was ten. He
afterwards set
up a paper of his own, then became telegraph operator,
studied
electricity, invented electric light, the electric pen,
the telephone,
microphone, phonograph, etc. Edison is known to be an
Agnostic and to
pay no attention to religion.
Eenens
(Ferdinand), Belgian writer, b. Brussels, 7 Dec. 1811. Eenens
was an officer
in the Belgian army, and wrote many political and
anti-clerical
pamphlets. He also wrote La Vérité, a work on the
Christian
faith, 1859; Le Paradis Terrestre, '60, an examination of
the legend of Eden,
and Du Dieu Thaumaturge, '76. He used the pen
names "Le
Père Nicaise," "Nicodème Polycarpe" and "Timon III."
Died
at Brussels in
1883.
Effen (Justus
van), Dutch writer, b. Utrecht, 11 Feb. 1684. Edited the
Misanthrope,
Amsterdam, 1712-16; translated Robinson Crusoe, Swift's
Tale of a Tub,
and Mandeville's Thoughts on Religion, 1722; published
the Dutch
Spectator, 1731-35. Died at Bois-le-Duc, 18 Sept. 1735.
Eichhorn
(Johann Gottfried), German Orientalist and rationalist, b. 16
Oct. 1752,
became Professor of Oriental Literature and afterwards
Professor of
Theology at Gottingen. He published Introductions to
the Old and New
Testaments and A Commentary on the Apocalypse, in
which his
criticism tends to uproot belief in the Bible as a divine
revelation. He
lectured every day for fifty-two years. Died 25 June,
1827.
"Elborch
(Conrad von)," the pseudonym of a living learned Dutch writer,
whose position
does not permit him to reveal his true name. Born
14 Jan. 1865,
he has contributed to De Dageraad (The Daybreak),
under various
pen-names, as "Fra Diavolo," "Denis Bontemps," "J. Van
den Ende,"
etc. He has given, in '88, a translation of the rare and
famous Latin
treatise, De Tribus Impostoribus (On Three Impostors)
[Jesus, Moses,
and Muhammad], with an important bibliographic and
historical
introduction.
"Eliot
(George)," the pen-name of Mary Ann Lewes (née Evans) one of
the greatest
novelists of the century, b. at Arbury Farm, near Griff,
Warwickshire,
22 Nov. 1819. In '41 the family removed to Foleshill,
near Coventry.
Here she made the friendship of the household of
Charles Bray,
and changed her views from Evangelical Christianity
to
philosophical scepticism. Influenced by The Inquiry into the
Origin of
Christianity, by C. C. Hennell (Bray's brother-in-law),
she made an
analysis of that work. Her first literary venture was
translating
Strauss' Leben Jesu, published in 1846. After the death
of her father
('49) she travelled with the Brays upon the Continent,
and upon her
return assisted Dr. Chapman in the editorship of the
Westminster
Review, to which she contributed several articles. She
translated
Feuerbach's Essence of Christianity, '54, the only work
published with
her real name, and also translated from Spinoza's
Ethics.
Introduced by Herbert Spencer to George Henry Lewes, she
linked her life
with his in defiance of the conventions of society,
July, '54. Both
were poor, but by his advice she turned to fiction,
in which she
soon achieved success. Her Scenes of Clerical Life, Adam
Bede, Mill on
the Floss, Silas Marner, Romola, Felix Holt, Middlemarch,
Daniel Deronda,
and Theophrastus Such have become classics. As a poet,
"George
Eliot" does not rank so high, but her little piece, "Oh,
may I join the
choir invisible," well expresses the emotion of the
Religion of
Humanity, and her Spanish Gipsy she allowed was "a mass
of
Positivism." Lewes died in 1878, and within two years she married
his friend, J.
W. Cross. Her new happiness was short-lived. She died
22 Dec. 1880,
and is buried with Lewes at Highgate.
Ellero (Pietro)
Italian jurisconsult, b. Pordenone, 8 Oct. 1833,
Counsellor of
the High Court of Rome, has been Professor of Criminal
Law in the
University of Bologna. Author of many works on legal and
social
questions. His Scritti Minori, Scritti Politici and La Question
Sociale have
the honor of a place on the Roman Index.
Elliotson
(John, M.D., F.R.S.), an eminent medical man, b. London,
1791. He became
physician at St. Thomas's Hospital in 1822, and made
many
contributions to medical science. By new prescriptions of quinine,
creasote, etc.,
he excited much hostility in the profession. He was
the first in
this country to advocate the use of the stethoscope. He
was also the
first physician to discard knee-breeches and silk
stockings, and
to wear a beard. In '31 he was chosen Professor at
University
College, but, becoming an advocate of curative mesmerism,
he resigned his
appointments, '38. He was founder and President of the
London
Phrenological Society, and, in addition to many medical works,
edited the
Zoist (thirteen vols.), translated Blumenbach's Physiology,
and wrote an
introduction to Engledue's Cerebral Physiology, defending
materialism.
Thackeray dedicated Pendennis to him, '50, and he received
a tribute of
praise from Dickens. Died at London, 29 July, 1868.
Eichthal
(Gustave d'), French writer, b. of Jewish family, Nancy,
22 March, 1804.
He became a follower of Saint Simon, was one of the
founders of the
Société d'Ethnologie, and published Les Evangiles, a
critical
analysis of the gospels, 2 vols, Paris, '63. This he followed
by The Three
Great Mediterranean Nations and Christianity and Socrates
and our Time,
'84. He died at Paris, April, 1886, and his son published
his Mélanges de
Critique Biblique (Miscellanies of Biblical Criticism),
in which there is
an able study on the name and character of "Jahveh."
Emerson (Ralph
Waldo), American essayist, poet, and philosopher,
b. Boston 25
May, 1803. He came of a line of ministers, and was
brought up like
his father, educated at Harvard College, and ordained
as a Unitarian
minister, 1829. Becoming too broad for the Church,
he resigned in
'32. In the next year he came to Europe, visiting
Carlyle. On his
return he settled at Concord, giving occasional
lectures, most
of which have been published. He wrote to the Dial, a
transcendentalist
paper. Tending to idealistic pantheism, but without
systematic
philosophy, all his writings are most suggestive, and he
is always the
champion of mental freedom, self-reliance, and the free
pursuit of
science. Died at Concord, 27 April, 1882. Matthew Arnold
has pronounced
his essays "the most important work done in prose"
in this
century.
Emerson
(William), English mathematician, b. Hurworth, near Darlington,
14 May, 1701.
He conducted a school and wrote numerous works on
Mathematics.
His vigorous, if eccentric, individuality attracted
Carlyle, who
said to Mrs. Gilchrist, "Emerson was a Freethinker who
looked on his
neighbor, the parson, as a humbug. He seems to have
defended
himself in silence the best way he could against the noisy
clamor and
unreal stuff going on around him." Died 21 May, 1782. He
compiled a list
of Bible contradictions.
Emmet (Robert),
Irish revolutionist, b. in Dublin 1778, was educated
as a barrister.
Expelled from Dublin University for his sympathy with
the National
Cause in 1798; he went to the Continent, but returned in
1802 to plan an
ill-starred insurrection, for which he was executed 20
Sept. 1803.
Emmet made a thrilling speech before receiving sentence,
and on the
scaffold refused the services of a priest. It is well
known that his
desire to see once more his sweetheart, the daughter
of Curran, was
the cause of his capture and execution.
Engledue
(William Collins), M.D., b. Portsea 1813. After taking his
degree at
Edinburgh, he became assistant to Dr. Lizars and was elected
President of
the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh. He returned
to Portsmouth
in 1835; originated the Royal Portsmouth Hospital and
established
public baths and washhouses. He contributed to the Zoist
and published
an exposition of materialism under the title of Cerebral
Physiology,
1842, republished by J. Watson, 1857. Died Jan. 1859.
English (George
Bethune), American writer and linguist, b. Cambridge,
Mass., 7 March,
1787. He studied law and divinity, and graduated
at Harvard, 1807,
but becoming sceptical published Grounds of
Christianity
Examined, 1813. The work excited some controversy,
and has been
reprinted at Toronto, 1839. He joined the Egyptian
service and
became General of Artillery. He had a variable genius
and a gift of languages.
At Marseilles he passed for a Turk with
a Turkish
ambassador; and at Washington he surprised a delegation
of Cherokees by
disputing with them in their own tongue. He wrote a
reply to his
critics, entitled Five Smooth Stones out of the Brook,
and two letters
to Channing on his sermons against infidelity. Died
at Washington,
20 Sept. 1828.
Ense (Varnhagen
von). See Varnhagen.
Ensor (George),
an Irish writer, b. Loughgall, 1769. Educated at
Trinity
College; he became B.A. 1790. He travelled largely, and was
a friend of
liberty in every country. Besides other political works
he published,
The Independent Man, 1806; On National Government,
1810; A Review
of the Miracles, Prophecies and Mysteries of the
Old and New
Testaments, first printed as Janus on Sion, 1816, and
republished
1835; and Natural Theology Examined, 1836, the last being
republished in
The Library of Reason. Bentham described him as clever
but
impracticable. Died Ardress, Co. Armagh, 3 Dec. 1843.
Epicurus, Greek
philosopher, b. Samos, B.C. 342. He repaired to
Athens, B.C.
323. Influenced by the works of Demokritos, he occupied
himself with
philosophy. He purchased a garden in Athens, in which he
established his
school. Although much calumniated, he is now admitted
to have been a
man of blameless life. According to Cicero, he had no
belief in the
gods, but did not attack their existence, in order not
to offend the
prejudices of the Athenians. In physics he adopted the
atomic theory,
and denied immortality. He taught that pleasure is the
sovereign good;
but by pleasure he meant no transient sensation, but
permanent
tranquility of mind. He wrote largely, but his works are
lost. His
principles are expounded in the great poem of Lucretius,
De Rerum
Natura. Died B.C. 270, leaving many followers.
"Erdan
(Alexandre)," the pen-name of Alexandre Andre Jacob, a French
writer, b.
Angles 1826. He was the natural son of a distinguished
prelate.
Educated at Saint Sulpice for the Church, he read Proudhon,
and refused to
take holy orders. He became a journalist and an advocate
of phonography.
His work, La France Mystique (1855), in which he
gives an
account of French religious eccentricities, was condemned
for its
scepticism which appears on every page. Sentenced to a year's
imprisonment
and a fine of three thousand francs, he took refuge in
Italy. Died at
Frascati, near Rome, 24 Sept. 1878.
Ernesti (Johann
August), German critic, b. Tennstadt, 4
Aug. 1707.
Studied at Wittenberg and Leipsic, where he was appointed
professor of
classical literature. Renowned as a philologist, he
insisted that
the Bible must be interpreted like any other book. Died
Leipsic, 11
Sept. 1781.
Escherny
(François Louis d') Count, Swiss litterateur, b. Neufchatel,
24 Nov. 1733.
He spent much of his life in travel. At Paris he became
the associate
of Helvetius, Diderot, and particularly Rousseau, whom he
much admired.
He wrote Lacunes de la Philosophie (Amsterdam, 1783) and
a work on
Equality (1795), in which he displays his Freethought. Died
at Paris, 15
July, 1815.
Espinas
(Alfred), French philosopher, b. Saint-Florentin, 1844. Has
translated,
with Th. Ribot, H. Spencer's Principles of Psychology,
and has written
studies on Experimental Philosophy in Italy, and on
Animal
Societies (1877).
Espronceda
(José), popular Spanish poet, b. Almendralejo (Estremadura)
in 1810. After
the War of Independence he went to Madrid and studied
under Alberto
Lista, the poet and mathematician. He became so obnoxious
to the
government by his radical principles that he was imprisoned
about the age
of fifteen, and banished a few years later. He passed
several years
in London and Paris, and was brought under the influence
of Byron and
Hugo. He fought with the people in the Paris Revolution
of July, 1830.
On the death of the Spanish King in '33 he returned
to Madrid, but
was again banished for too free expression of his
opinions. He
returned and took part in the revolutionary contest of
'35-36. He was
elected to the Cortes in '41, and appointed secretary
of embassy to
The Hague. Died 23 May, 1842. Among his works are
lyrical poems,
which often remind us of Heine; an unfinished epic,
El Pelayo; and
El Diablo-Mundo (the Devil-World), a fine poem, due
to the
inspiration of Faust and Don Juan. Espronceda was a thorough
sceptic. In his
Song of the Pirate he asks, "Who is my God?--Liberty";
and in his
concluding lines to a star he says:
I unheedingly follow my path,
At the mercy of winds and of
waves.
Wrapt thus within the arms of
Fate,
What care I if lost or saved.
Estienne
(Henri), the ablest of a family of learned French printers,
known in
England as Stephens; b. Paris, 1528. At the age of
eighteen he
assisted his father in collating the MSS. of Dionysius
of
Halicarnassus. In 1557 he established a printing office of his
own, and issued
many Greek authors; and in 1572 the Thesaurus Linguæ
Græcæ. His
Apologie pour Herodote (Englished as a World of Wonders)
is designed as
a satire on Christian legends, and directed against
priests and
priestcraft. He was driven from place to place. Sir
Philip Sidney
highly esteemed him, and "kindly entertained him in
his
travaile." Died 1598. Garasse classes him with Atheists.
Esteve
(Pierre), French writer, b. Montpelier at the beginning of the
eighteenth
century. He wrote a History of Astronomy and an anonymous
work on the
Origin of the Universe explained from a Principle of
Matter; Berlin,
1748.
Ettel (Konrad),
Austrian Freethinker, b. 17 Jan. 1847, at Neuhof,
Sternberg.
Studied at the Gymnasium Kremsier, and at the wish of his
parents at the
Theological Seminary Olmütz, which he left to study
philosophy at
Vienna. He has written many poems and dramas. His
Grundzuge der
Natürlichen Weltanschauung (Sketch of a Natural View
of the World),
a Freethinker's catechism, 1886, has reached a fourth
edition.
Evans (George
Henry), b. at Bromyard, Herefordshire, 25 March,
1803. While a
child, his parents emigrated to New York. He set up
as a printer,
and published the Correspondent, the first American
Freethought
paper. He also published the Working Man's Advocate, Man,
Young America,
and the Radical. He labored for the transportation
of mails on
Sundays, the limitation of the right to hold lands,
the abolition
of slavery, and other reforms. His brother became one
of the chief elders
of the Shakers. Died in Granville, New Jersey,
2 Feb. 1855.
Evans
(William), b. Swansea, 1816, became a follower of Robert
Owen. He
established The Potter's Examiner and Workman's Advocate,
'43, and wrote
in the Co-operative journals under the anagram of
"Millway
Vanes." Died 14 March, 1887.
Evanson
(Edward), theological critic, b. Warrington, Lancashire,
21 April, 1731.
He graduated at Cambridge, became vicar of South
Mimms, and
afterwards rector of Tewkesbury. Entertaining doubts
on the Trinity,
he submitted them to the Archbishop of Canterbury
without
obtaining satisfaction. He made some changes in reading the
Litany, and for
expressing heretical opinions in a sermon in 1771,
he was
prosecuted, but escaped in consequence of some irregularity
in the
proceedings. In 1772 he published an anonymous tract on the
Trinity. In
1797 he addressed a letter to the Bishop of Lichfield
on the
Prophecies of the New Testament, in which he tried to show
that either
Christianity was false or the orthodox churches. In the
following year
he resigned both his livings and took pupils. In
1792 he
published his principal work, The Dissonance of the Four
Generally-Received
Evangelists, in which he rejected all the gospels,
except Luke, as
unauthentic. This work involved him in a controversy
with Dr.
Priestley, and brought a considerable share of obloquy and
persecution
from the orthodox. Died 25 Sept. 1805.
Eve'merus or
Euhemerus, a Sicilian author of the time of Alexander
the Great, who
sought to rationalise religion, and treated the gods
as dead heroes.
He is usually represented as an Atheist.
Eudes (Emile
François Désiré), French Communist, b. Roncey, 1844. He
became a
chemist, and was condemned, with Régnard, to three months'
imprisonment
for writing in La Libre Pensée, '67, of which he was
director. He
joined the ranks of the Commune and became a general. When
the Versailles
troops entered Paris he escaped to Switzerland. On
his return
after the Amnesty, he wrote with Blanqui. Died at a public
meeting in
Paris, 5 Aug. 1888.
Ewerbeck
(August Hermann), Dr., b. Dantzic. After the events of 1848,
he lived at
Paris. He translated into German Cabet's Voyage en Icarie,
and in an
important work entitled Qu'est ce que La Religion? (What
is Religion),
'50, translated into French Feuerbach's "Essence of
Religion,"
"Essence of Christianity," and "Death and Immortality." In
a succeeding
volume What is the Bible? he translated from Daumer,
Ghillany,
Luetzelberger and B. Bauer. Ewerbeck also wrote in French
an historical
work on Germany and the Germans; Paris, 1851.
Fabre
D'Eglantine (Philippe François Nazaire), French revolutionist and
playwriter, b.
Carcassonne, 28 Dec. 1755. After some success as a poet
and playwright
he was chosen as deputy to the National Convention. He
voted for the
death of Louis XVI., and proposed the substitution of
the republican
for the Christian calendar, Sept. 1793. He was executed
with his friend
Danton, 5 April, 1794.
Fabricatore
(Bruto), Italian writer, b. Sarno, Naples, 1824. His father
Antonio had the
honor of having a political work placed on the Index,
1821. He took
part in the anti-papal Freethought Council of 1869,
and has written
works on Dante, etc.
Farinata. See
Uberti (Farinata degli).
Fauche
(Hippolyte), French Orientalist, b. Auxerre, 22 May,
1797.
Translations of the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the plays
of Kalidasa,
attest his industry and erudition. He contributed to La
Liberté de
Penser. Died at Juilly, 28 Feb. 1869.
Fausto
(Sebastiano), Da Longiano, Italian of the beginning of the 16th
century, who is
said to have projected a work The Temple of Truth,
with the
intention of overturning all religions. He translated the
Meditations of
Antoninus, also wrote observations on Cicero, 1566.
Feer (Henri
Léon), French Orientalist, b. Rouen, 27 Nov. 1830, is
chiefly known
by his Buddhistic Studies, 1871-75.
Fellens (Jean
Baptiste), Professor of History, b. Bar-sur-Aube,
1794. Author of
a work on Pantheism, Paris, 1873.
Fellowes
(Robert), LL.D., b. Norfolk 1771, educated at Oxford. He
took orders in
1795, and wrote many books, but gradually quitted the
doctrines of
the Church and adopted the Deistic opinions maintained in
his work
entitled The Religion of the Universe (1836). Dr. Fellowes
was proprietor
of the Examiner and a great supporter of the London
University.
Died 5 Feb. 1847.
Fenzi
(Sebastiano), Italian writer, b. Florence, 22 Oct. 1822. Educated
by the Jesuits
in Vienna, England and Paris. Founded in '49 the Revista
Britannica,
writer on the journal L'Italiano, and has written a credo
which is a
non-credo.
Feringa
(Frederik), Dutch writer, b. Groningen, 16 April, 1840. Studied
mathematics. A
contributor to De Dageraad (The Daybreak) over the
signature,
"Muricatus"; he has written important studies, entitled
Democratie en
Wetenschap (Democracy and Science), 1871, also wrote
in De Vrije
Gedachte (Freethought).
Fernau
(Rudolf), Dr., German author of Christianity and Practical
Life, Leipsic,
1868; The Alpha and Omega of Reason, Leipsic, 1870;
Zoologica
Humoristica, 1882; and a recent work on Religion as Ghost
and God
Worship.
Feron (Emile),
Belgian advocate, b. Brussels, 11 July, 1841. Councillor
of the
International Freethought Federation.
Ferrari
(Giuseppe), Italian philosopher, b. Milan 7 March, 1811. A
disciple of
Romagnosi, a study of whose philosophical writings he
published '35.
He also published the works of Vico, and in '39 a work
entitled Vico
and Italy, and in the following year another on the
Religious
Opinions of Campanella. Attacked by the Catholic party,
he was exiled,
living in Paris, where he became a collaborator with
Proudhon and a
contributor to the Revue de Deux Mondes. In '42 he
was made
Professor of Philosophy at Strasbourg, but appointment was
soon cancelled
on account of his opinions. He wrote a History of the
Revolution of
Italy, '55, and a work on China and Europe. His history
of the Reason
of the State, '60, is his most pronounced work. In '59,
he was elected
to the Italian Parliament, where he remained one of
the most
radical members until his death at Rome 1 July, 1876.
Ferri (Enrico),
Member of the Italian Parliament, formerly professor
of criminal law
at the University of Siena, studied at Mantua under
Professor
Ardigo. Has written a large work on the Non-Existence of
Free Will, and
is with Professor Lombroso, leader of the new Italian
school of
criminal law reform.
Ferri (Luigi),
Italian philosopher, b. Bologna, 15 June 1826. Studied
in Paris and
became licentiate of letters in 1850. Author of History
of Philosophy
in Italy, Paris 1868; The Psychology of Pomponazzi, etc.
Ferrière
(Emile), French writer and licentiate of letters, b. Paris,
1830; author of
Literature and Philosophy, 1865; Darwinism, 1872,
which has gone
through several editions; The Apostles, a work
challenging
early Christian Morality, 1879; The Soul the Function
of the Brain, a
scientific work of popular character in two vols.,
1883; and
Paganism of the Hebrews until the Babylonian Captivity,
1884. All these
are works of pronounced Freethought. M. Ferrière has
also announced
a work Jesus bar Joseph.
Feuerbach
(Friedrich Heinrich), son of a famous German jurist, was
b. at Ansbach
29 Sept. 1806. He studied philology, but set himself to
preach what his
brother Ludwig taught. He wrote Theanthropos, a series
of Aphorisms
(Zurich, '38), and an able work on the Religion of the
Future, '43-47;
and Thoughts and Facts, Hamburg, '62. Died Nurenberg,
24 Jan. 1880.
Feuerbach
(Ludwig Andreas), brother of the preceding, b. Landshut,
Bavaria, 28
July 1804. He studied theology with a view to the Church,
but under the
influence of Hegel abandoned it for philosophy. In '28
he was made
professor at Erlangen, but was dismissed in consequence
of his first
published work, Thoughts upon Death and Immortality,
'30, in which
he limited immortality to personal influence on the
human race.
After a wandering life he married in '37, and settled
near Anspach.
He published there a history of modern philosophy from
Bacon to
Spinoza. This was followed by a work on Peter Bayle. In '38
he wrote on
philosophy and Christianity, and in '41 his work called
the The Essence
of Christianity, in which he resolves theology
into
anthropology. This book was translated by Mary Ann Evans,
'53. He also
wrote Principles of the Philosophy of the Future. After
the revolution
of '48 he was invited to lecture by the students of
Heidelberg, and
gave his course on The Essence of Religion, published
in '51. In '57
he published Theogony from the Sources of Classical,
Hebrew, and
Christian Antiquity, and in '66 Theism, Freedom, and
Immortality
from the Standpoint of Anthropology. Died at Rechenberg,
near Nurenberg,
13 Sept. 1872. His complete works were published at
Leipsic in
1876. He was a deep thinker and lucid writer.
Fichte (Johann
Gottlieb), one of the greatest German thinkers,
b. 19 May,
1762. He studied at the Universities of Jena, Leipsic,
and Wittenberg,
embraced "determinism," became acquainted with Kant,
and published
anonymously, A Criticism of all Revelation. He obtained
a chair of
philosophy at Jena, where he developed his doctrines
of science,
asserting that the problem of philosophy is to seek
on what
foundations knowledge rests. He gave moral discourses in
the
lecture-room on Sunday, and was accused of holding atheistical
opinions. He
was in consequence banished from Saxony, 1799. He appears
to have held
that God was not a personal being, but a system of
intellectual,
moral, and spiritual laws. Fichte took deep interest in
the cause of
German independence, and did much to rouse his countrymen
against the
domination of the French during the conquest which led to
the fall of
Napoleon. Besides many publications, in which he expounds
his philosophy,
he wrote eloquent treatises on The Vocation of Man,
The Nature and
Vocation of the Scholar, The Way Towards the Blessed
Life, etc. Died
Berlin 27 Jan. 1814.
"Figaro."
See Larra (Mariano José de).
Figuiera
(Guillem), Provençal troubadour and precursor of the
Renaissance, b.
Toulouse about 1190. His poems were directed against
the priests and
Court of Rome.
Filangieri
(Gaetano), an Italian writer on legislation, b. Naples,
18 Aug. 1752.
He was professor at that city. His principal work is
La Scienza
della Legislazione, 1780. In the fifth volume he deals
with
pre-Christian religions. The work was put on the Index. Died 21
July, 1788.
Fiorentino
(Francesco), Italian philosopher, b. Sambiasa, Nicastro,
1 May, 1834. In
1860 he became Professor of Philosophy at Spoletto,
in '62 at
Bologna, and in '71 at Naples. He was elected deputy
to Parliament,
Nov. '70. A disciple of Felice Tocco, he paid
special attention
to the early Italian Freethinkers, writing upon
The Pantheism
of Giordano Bruno, Naples, '61; Pietro Pomponazzi,
Florence, '68;
Bernardius Telesio, Florence, 2 vols., '72-74. He
has also
written on Strauss and Spinoza. In the Nuova Antologia he
wrote on J. C.
Vanini, and on Cæsalpinus, Campanella, and Bruno. A
friend of
Bertrando Spaventa, he succeeded to his chair at Naples in
'83. Died 22
Dec. 1884.
Fischart
(Johann), German satirist called Mentzer, b. Strasbourg about
1545. His
satires in prose and verse remind one of Rabelais, whom he
in part
translated, and are often directed against the Church. Died
at Forbach in
1614.
Fischer (J.
C.), German materialist, author of a work on the freedom of
the will 1858,
a criticism of Hartmann's Philosophy of the Unconscious,
'72; Das
Bewusstsein, '74. Died 1888.
Fischer (Kuno),
German philosopher, b. 23 July, 1824, at Sandewald,
Silesia.
Educated at Leipsic and Halle, in 1856 he was appointed
Professor of
Philosophy at Jena. His chief works are History of Modern
Philosophy,
'52-72; Life and Character of Spinoza; Francis Bacon,
'56; and
Lessing, '81.
Fiske (John),
American author, b. Hartford, Connecticut, 30 March,
1842. Graduated
at Harvard, '63. In '69-71 was Lecturer on Philosophy
at that
University, and from '72-9 Librarian. Mr. Fiske has lectured
largely, and
has written Myths and Mythmakers, '72; Outlines of
Cosmic
Philosophy, 2 vols. '74; Darwinism, and other essays, '79;
Excursions of
an Evolutionist, '83; The Idea of God as Affected by
Modern
Knowledge, '85.
Flaubert
(Gustave), French novelist, b. Rouen, 12 Dec. 1821. The son
of a
distinguished surgeon, he abandoned his father's profession for
literature. His
masterpiece, Madame Bovary, published in '56 in the
Revue de Paris,
drew a prosecution upon that journal which ended
in a triumph
for the author. For his next great work, Salammbô,
'62, an epic of
Carthage, he prepared himself by long antiquarian
studies. His
intellectual tendencies are displayed in The Temptation
of Saint
Anthony. He stands eminent among the naturalist school for
his artistic
fidelity. He was a friend of Théophile Gautier, Ivan
Turgenev, Emile
Zola and "George Sand." His correspondence with the
last of these
has been published. He distinctly states therein that
on subjects
like immortality men cheat themselves with words. Died
at Rouen, 9
May, 1880.
Flourens (Marie
Jean Pierre), French scientist, b. near Béziers, 15
April, 1794. In
1828 he was admitted into the Academy of Sciences,
after having
published a work on the nervous system of vertebrates;
he became
perpetual secretary in '33. A work on Human Longevity and
the Quantity of
Life on the Globe was very popular. Died near Paris,
6 Dec. 1867.
Flourens
(Gustave), eldest son of the preceding, b. Paris,
4 Aug. 1838. In
'63 he took his father's chair at the College of
France, and his
course on "Ethnography" attracted much attention. In
the following
year he published his work on The Science of Man. His
bold heresy
lost him his chair, and he collaborated on Larousse's
Grand
Dictionnaire. In '65 he left France for Crete, where for three
years he fought
in the mountains against the Turkish troops. Upon
his return he
was arrested for presiding at a political meeting. He
showed himself
an ardent Revolutionist, and was killed in a skirmish
near Nanterre,
3 April, 1871.
Fonblanque
(Albany William), English journalist, b. London, 1793;
the son of an
eminent lawyer. In 1820 he was on the staff of the
Times, and
contributed to the Westminster Review. In '30 he became
editor of the
Examiner, and retained his post until '47. His caustic
wit and
literary attainments did much to forward advanced liberal
views. A
selection of his editorials was published under the title,
England under
Seven Administrations. Died 13 Oct. 1872.
Fontanier
(Jean), French writer, who was burnt at the Place
de Grève, 1621,
for blasphemies in a book entitled Le Tresor
Inestimable.
Garasse, with little reason, calls him an Atheist.
Fontenelle
(Bernard le Bovier de), nephew of Corneille, called
by Voltaire the
most universal genius of the reign of Louis XIV.,
b. Rouen, 11
Feb. 1657. Dedicated to the Virgin and St. Bernard,
he was educated
at the Jesuits' College. He went to Paris in 1674;
wrote some
plays and Dialogues of the Dead, 1683. In 1686 appeared
his
Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds, and in the following
year his
History of Oracles, based on the work of Van Dale, for which
he was warmly
attacked by the Jesuit Baltus, as impugning the Church
Fathers. He was
made secretary to the Academy of Sciences in 1699,
a post he held
forty-two years. He wrote Doubts on the Physical
System of
Occasional Causes, and is also credited with a letter
on the
Resurrection of the Body, a piece on The Infinite, and a
Treatise on
Liberty; "but," says l'Abbé Ladvocat, "as these books
contain many
things contrary to religion, it is to be hoped they are
not his."
Fontenelle nearly reached the age of one hundred. A short
time before he
died (9 Jan. 1757), being asked if he felt any pain,
"I only
feel," he replied, "a difficulty of existing."
Foote (George
William), writer and orator, b. Plymouth, 11
Jan. 1850. Was
"converted" in youth, but became a Freethinker by
reading and
independent thought. Came to London in 1868, and was soon a
leading member
of the Young Men's Secular Association. He taught in the
Hall of Science
Sunday School, and became secretary of the Republican
League.
Devoting his time to propagating his principles, he wrote
in the Secular
Chronicle and National Reformer, and in '76 started
the Secularist
in conjunction with Mr. G. J. Holyoake, and after
the ninth
number conducting it alone. This afterwards merged in the
Secular Review.
In '79 Mr. Foote edited the Liberal, and in Sept. '81,
started the
Freethinker, which he still edits. In the following year
a prosecution
was commenced by the Public Prosecutor, who attempted
to connect Mr.
Bradlaugh with it. Undaunted, Mr. Foote issued a
Christmas
number with an illustrated "Comic Life of Christ." For
this a
prosecution was started by the City authorities against him
and his publisher
and printer, and the trial came on first in March,
'83. The jury
disagreed, but Judge North refused to discharge the
prisoners, and
they were tried again on the 5th March; Judge North
directing that
a verdict of guilty must be returned, and sentencing
Mr. Foote to
one year's imprisonment as an ordinary criminal subject
to the same
"discipline" as burglars. "I thank you, my lord; your
sentence is
worthy of your creed," he remarked. On 24 April, '83,
Mr. Foote was
brought from prison before Lord Coleridge and a special
jury on the
first charge, and after a splendid defence, upon which
he was highly
complimented by the judge, the jury disagreed. He has
debated with
Dr. McCann, Rev. A. J. Harrison, the Rev. W. Howard,
the Rev. H.
Chapman, and others. Mr. Foote has written much,
and lectures
continually. Among his works we mention Heroes and
Martyrs of
Freethought (1876); God, the Soul, and a Future State;
Secularism the
True Philosophy of Life (1879); Atheism and Morality;
The Futility of
Prayer; Bible Romances; Death's Test, afterwards
enlarged into
Infidel Death-Beds; The God Christians Swear by; Was
Jesus Insane?
Blasphemy No Crime; Arrows of Freethought; Prisoner
for Blasphemy
(1884); Letters to Jesus Christ; What Was Christ? Bible
Heroes; and has
edited The Bible Hand-book with Mr. W. P. Ball, and
the Jewish Life
of Christ with the present writer, in conjunction
with whom he
has written The Crimes of Christianity. From 1883-87
he edited
Progress, in which appeared many important articles from
his pen. Mr. Foote
is President of the London Secular Federation,
and a
Vice-President of the National Secular Society.
Fouillee
(Alfred), French philosopher, b. La Pouëze, near Angers,
18 Oct. 1838.
Has been teacher at several lyceums, notably at
Bordeaux. He
was crowned by the Academy of Moral Sciences for two
works on the
Philosophy of Plato and Socrates. Elected Professor
of Philosophy
at the Superior Normal School, Paris, he sustained
a thesis at the
Sorbonne on Liberty and Determinism, which was
violently
attacked by the Catholics. This work has gone through
several
editions. M. Fonillée has also written an able History of
Philosophy,
1875, Contemporary Social Science, and an important
Critique of
Contemporary Moral Systems (1883). He has written much
in the Revue des
Deux Mondes, and is considered, with Taine, Ribot,
and Renan, the
principal representative of French philosophy. His
system is known
as that of idèes-forces, as he holds that ideas are
themselves
forces. His latest work expounds the views of M. Guyau.
Forberg
(Friedrich Karl), German philosopher, b. Meuselwitz, 30
Aug. 1770,
studied theology at Leipsic, and became private docent
at Jena.
Becoming attached to Fichte's philosophy, he wrote with
Fichte in
Niethammer's Philosophical Journal on "The Development
of Religious
Ideas," and an article on "The Ground of our Faith in
Divine
Providence," which brought on them a charge of Atheism, and
the journal was
confiscated by the Electorate of Saxony. Forberg held
religion to
consist in devotion to morality, and wrote An Apology
for Alleged
Atheism, 1799. In 1807 he became librarian at Coburg,
and devoted
himself to the classics, issuing a Manuel d'Erotologie
Classique. Died
Hildburghausen 1 Jan. 1848.
Forder
(Robert), b. Yarmouth, 14 Oct. 1844. Coming to to Woolwich,
he became known
as a political and Freethought lecturer. He took part
in the movement
to save Plumstead Common from the enclosers, and was
sent to trial
for riotous proceedings, but was acquitted. In '77 he
was appointed
paid secretary to the National Secular Society, a post
he has ever
since occupied. During the imprisonment of Messrs. Foote,
Ramsey, and
Kemp, in '83, Mr. Forder undertook charge of the publishing
business. He
has lectured largely, and written some pamphlets.
Forlong (James
George Roche). Major General, H.B.A., b. Lanarkshire,
Scotland, Nov.
1824. Educated as an engineer, joined the Indian
army '43,
fought in the S. Mahrata campaign '45-6, and in the second
Burmese war. On
the annexation of Barma he became head of the Survey,
Roads and canal
branches. In '58-9 he travelled extensively through
Egypt,
Palestine, Turkey, Greece, Italy, Spain, etc. From '61-71 was
a
superintending engineer of Calcutta, and in Upper Bengal, North-west
Provinces, and
Rajputana, and '72-76 was Secretary and Chief Engineer
to the
Government of Oudh. He retired in '77 after an active service of
33 years,
during which he frequently received the thanks of the Indian
and Home
Governments. In his youth he was an active Evangelical,
preaching to
the natives in their own tongues. He has, however,
given his
testimony that during his long experience he has known no
one converted
solely by force of reasoning or "Christian evidences." A
great student
of Eastern religions, archæology, and languages, he has
written in various
periodicals of the East and West, and has embodied
the result of
many years researches in two illustrated quarto volumes
called Rivers
of Life, setting forth the evolution of all religions
from their
radical objective basis to their present spiritualised
developments.
In an elaborate chart he shows by streams of color the
movements of
thought from 10,000 B.C. to the present time.
Fourier
(François Marie Charles), French socialist, b. Besançon, 7
April, 1772. He
passed some of the early years of his life as a common
soldier. His
numerous works amid much that is visionary have valuable
criticisms upon
society, and suggestions for its amelioration. He
believed in the
transmigration of souls. Died at Paris, 8 Oct. 1837.
Fox (William
Johnson), orator and political writer, b. near Wrentham,
Suffolk, 1786.
Intended for the Congregational Ministry, he became
a Unitarian,
and for many years preached at South Place, Finsbury,
where he
introduced the plan of taking texts from other books
besides the
Bible. One of his first published sermons was on behalf of
toleration for
Deists at the time of the Carlile prosecutions 1819. He
gradually
advanced from the acceptance of miracles to their complete
rejection.
During the Anti-Corn Law agitation he was a frequent
and able
speaker. In 1847 he became M.P. for Oldham, and retained
his seat until
his retirement in '61. He was a prominent worker for
Radicalism,
contributing to the Westminster Review, Weekly Dispatch,
and Daily News.
For some years he edited the Monthly Repository. His
works, which
include spirited Lectures to the Working Classes, and a
philosophical
statement of Religions Ideas, were published in twelve
volumes,
'65-68. Died 3 June, 1864.
"Franchi
(Ausonio)," the pen name of Francesco Cristoforo Bonavino,
Italian
ex-priest, b. Pegli, 24 Feb. 1821. Brought up in the Church
and ordained
priest in '44, the practice of the confessional made
him sceptical
and he quitted it for philosophy, having ceased to
believe in its
dogmas, '49. In '52 he published his principal work,
entitled The
Philosophy of the Italian Schools. The following year
he published
The Religion of the Nineteenth Century. He established
La Razione
(Reason) and Il Libero Pensiero at Turin, '54-57; wrote
on the
Rationalism of the People, Geneva, '56, and became an active
organiser of
anti-clerical societies. In '66 he published a criticism
of Positivism,
and has since written Critical and Polemical Essays,
3 vols. Milan,
'70-72. In '68 was appointed Professor of Philosophy
in the Academy
of Milan by Terenzio Mamiani.
Francis
(Samuel), M.D., author of Watson Refuted, published by
Carlile, 1819.
Francois de
Neufchateau (Nicolas Louis), Count, French statesman,
poet, and
academician, b. Lorraine, 17 April, 1750. In his youth he
became
secretary to Voltaire, who regarded him as his successor. He
favored the
Revolution, and was elected to the Legislative Assembly
in '91. As
Member of the Directory, '97, he circulated d'Holbach's
Contagion
Sacrée. He became President of the Senate, '14-16. He wrote
numerous pieces.
Died at Paris 10 Jan. 1828.
Franklin
(Benjamin), American patriot and philosopher, b. Boston 17
Jan. 1706. He
was apprenticed to his uncle as a printer, came to
England and
worked at his trade '24-26; returned to Philadelphia,
where he
published a paper and became known by his Poor Richard's
Almanack. He
founded the public library at Philadelphia, and
made the
discovery of the identity of lightning with the electric
fluid. He
became member of the Provincial Assembly and was sent to
England as
agent. When examined before the House of Commons he spoke
boldly against
the Stamp Act. He was active during the war with this
country, and
was elected member of Congress. Became envoy to France,
and effected
the treaty of alliance with that country, 6 Feb. '78,
which secured
the independence of the American colonies. Turgot summed
up his services
in the fine line Eripuit cælo fulmen, sceptrumque
tyrannis.
"He wrested the thunderbolt from heaven and the sceptre
from
kings." Died at Philadelphia, 17 April, 1790.
Fransham
(John), a native of Norwich, b. 1730, became a teacher of
mathematics,
renounced the Christian religion, and professed Paganism,
writing several
treatises in favor of disbelief. Died 1810.
Frauenstaedt
(Christian Martin Julius), Dr., philosopher and disciple
of
Schopenhauer, b. 17 April, 1813, at Bojanowo, Posen. He studied
philosophy and
theology at Berlin, but meeting Schopenhauer at
Frankfort in
'47 he adopted the views of the pessimist, who made
him his
literary executor. Among Frauenstädt's works are Letters on
Natural
Religion, '58, The Liberty of Men and the Personality of God,
'38; Letters on
the Philosophy of Schopenhauer, '54, etc. Died at
Berlin, 13 Jan.
1879.
Frederick II.
(Emperor of Germany), the greatest man of the thirteenth
century and
founder of the Renaissance, b. 26 Dec. 1194. Was elected
to the throne
in 1210. He promoted learning, science, and art, founded
the
Universities of Vienna and Naples, had the works of Aristotle
and Averroes
translated, and was the patron of all the able men of
his time. For
his resistance to the tyranny of the Church he was
twice
excommunicated. He answered by a letter attacking the Pope
(Gregory IX.),
whom he expelled from Rome in '28. He made a treaty
with the Sultan
of Egypt, by which he became master of Jerusalem. For
some heretical
words in his letter, in which he associates the names
of Christ,
Moses, and Mohammed, he was reported author of the famous
work De Tribus
Impostoribus. He addressed a series of philosophical
questions to
Ibn Sabin, a Moslem doctor. He is said to have called
the Eucharist
truffa ista, and is credited also with the saying
"Ignorance
is the mother of devotion." Died at Florence, 13 Dec. 1250.
Frederick the
Great (King of Prussia), b. 24 Jan. 1712, was educated in
a very rigid
fashion by his father, Frederick William I. He ascended
the throne and
soon displayed his political and military ability. By
a war with
Austria he acquired Silesia. He wrote several deistical
pieces, and
tolerated all religions and no religion saying "every man
must get to
heaven his own way." He attracted to his court men like
Lamettrie,
D'Argens, Maupertuis, and Voltaire, who, says Carlyle,
continued all
his days Friedrich's chief thinker. In 1756 France,
Austria,
Sweden, and Russia united against him, but he held his own
against "a
world in arms." After a most active life Frederick died
at Potsdam, 17
Aug. 1786. The Philosophical Breviary attributed to
him was really
written by Cérutti.
Fredin (Nils
Edvard), Swedish writer, b. 1857. Has published
translation of
modern poets, and also of Col. Ingersoll's writings. In
'80 he was
awarded first prize by the Swedish Academy for an original
poem.
Freeke
(William), b. about 1663, wrote A Brief but Clear Confutation
of the Trinity,
which being brought before the notice of the House of
Lords it was on
3 Jan. 1693 ordered to be burnt by the common hangman,
and the author
being prosecuted by the Attorney General was fined £500.
Freiligrath
(Ferdinand) German poet, b. Detmold 17 June, 1810. In
'35 he acquired
notice by some poems. In '44 he published his
profession of
faith Mein Glaubensbekenntniss, and was forced to
fly the
country. In '48 he returned and joined Karl Marx on the
Neue Rheinische
Zeitung. Again prosecuted he took refuge in London,
devoting his leisure
to poetry and translation. Freiligrath holds a
high place
among the poets of his time. Died Kannstadt, near Stuttgart,
18 March 1876.
Fréret
(Nicolas), French historical critic, b. 15 Feb. 1688. He was a
pupil of
Rollin, and was patronised by Boulainvilliers. Distinguished
by his
attainments in ancient history, philosophy and chronology,
he became
member of the Academy of Inscriptions 1714. For a Discourse
on the
"Origin of the Franks," he was incarcerated for four months in
the Bastille.
While here he read Bayle so often that he could repeat
much from
memory. He was an unbeliever, and the author of the atheistic
Letters from
Thrasybulus to Leucippe on Natural and Revealed Religion,
and perhaps of
La Moisade, a criticism of the Pentateuch, translated
by D. I. Eaton,
as A Preservative against Religious Prejudices. The
Letters to
Eugenie, attributed to Fréret, were written by D'Holbach,
and the
Critical Examination of the Apologists of the Christian
Religion by J.
Levesque de Burigny. A Critical Examination of the New
Testament, 1777
which long circulated in MS. has also been wrongly
attributed to
Fréret. Died at Paris, 8 March, 1749.
Frey (William),
the adopted name of a Russian Positivist
and
philanthropist, b. of noble family, the son of a general,
1839. Educated
at the higher military school, St. Petersburg, he
became teacher
in a Government High School, and disgusted with the
oppression and
degradation of his country he went to New York in
1866 where he
established co-operative communities and also Russian
colonies in
Kansas and Oregon. In 1884 he came to London in order to
influence his
countrymen. In '87 he revisited Russia. Died 6 Nov. 1888.
Fries (Jacob
Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Barby, 23
Aug. 1773.
Brought up as a Moravian, he became a Deist. Fries is of
the Neo-Kantian
rationalistic school. Among his writings are a System
of Metaphysics,
1824; a Manual of the Philosophy of Religion and
Philosophical
Æsthetics, Heidelberg '32; in which he resolves religion
into poetry. He
criticised Kant's proofs of God and immortality,
and wrote a
History of Philosophy. Died Jena, 10 Aug. 1843.
Frothingham
(Octavius Brooks), American author, b. Boston, 26
Nov. 1822.
Graduated at Harvard, '43, and became Unitarian minister. In
'60 he became
pastor of the most radical Unitarian congregation in
New York. In
'67 he became first president of the Free Religious
Association,
but, becoming too advanced, resigned in '79 and came
to Europe.
Since his return to Boston, '81, he has devoted himself
to literature.
He has published The Religion of Humanity, N.Y.,
'73; Life of
Theodore Parker, '74; The Cradle of the Christ, '77;
Life of Gerrit
Smith, 78; and numerous sermons.
Froude (James
Anthony), man of letters and historian, the son of an
Archdeacon of
Totnes, was b. Dartington, Devon, 23 April, 1818, and
educated at
Westminster and Oxford, where he took his degree in '40,
was elected
fellow of Exeter College and received deacon's orders. At
first, under
the influence of the Romanising movement, he became
a rationalist
and abandoned his fellowship and clerical life. His
Nemesis of
Faith, '48, showed the nature of his objections. Mr. Froude
devoted his
abilities to a literary career, and fell under the
influence of
Carlyle. For many years he edited Fraser's Magazine,
in which he
wrote largely. His essays are collected under the title
of Short
Studies on Great Subjects, '71-83. His largest work is the
History of
England, from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat of the
Spanish Armada,
'56-76. His Life of Carlyle, '82, and publication
of Carlyle's
Reminiscenses provoked much controversy. His magical
translation of
Lucian's most characteristic Dialogue of the Gods
is done with
too much verve to allow of the supposition that the
translator is
not in sympathy with his author.
Fry (John), a
colonel in the Parliamentary army. In 1640 he was
elected one of
the burgesses of Shaftesbury, but his return was
declared void.
After serving with distinction in the army, he was
called to the
House of Commons by the Independents in 1648. He voted
for Charles I.
being put on trial; and sat in judgment when sentence
was passed on
him. He was charged with blasphemy and wrote The Accuser
Shamed, 1649,
which was ordered to be burnt for speaking against
"that
chaffie and absurd opinion of three persons in the Godhead." He
also wrote The
Clergy in their Colors, 1650.
Fuller (Sarah
Margaret), American authoress, b. Cambridgeport,
Massachusetts,
23 May, 1810. In '40-42 she edited the Dial. She
also published
Woman in the Nineteenth Century, '44. Among friends
she counted
Emerson, Hawthorne, Channing, and Mazzini. She visited
Europe and
married at Rome the Marquis D'Ossoli. Returning she was
shipwrecked and
drowned off the coast of New Jersey, 16 July, 1850.
Furnemont
(Léon), Belgian advocate, b. Charleroi, 17 April,
1861. Entered
the school of Mines Liége in '76, and founded the Circle
of Progressive
Students. Became president of International Congress
of Students,
'84, and represented Young Belgium at the funeral of
Victor Hugo.
Radical candidate at the Brussels municipal elections,
he obtained
3,500 votes, but was not elected. He is a Councillor
of the
International Federation of Freethinkers and director of a
monthly
journal, La Raison, 1889.
Gabarro
(Bartolomé) Dr., Spanish writer, b. Ygualade, Barcelona,
27 Sept. 1846,
was educated in a clerical college with a view to
taking the
clerical habit, he refused and went to America. After
travelling
much, he established a day school in Barcelona and founded
an
Anti-clerical League of Freethinkers pledged to live without
priests. This
induced much clerical wrath, especially when Dr. Gabarro
founded some
200 Anti-clerical groups and over 100 lay schools. For
denouncing the
assassins of a Freethinker he was pursued for libel,
sentenced to
four years' imprisonment, and forced to fly to Cerbere
on the
frontier, where he continues his anti-clerical journal La
Tronada. He has
written many anti-clerical brochures and an important
work on Pius
IX. and History.
Gabelli
(Aristide), Italian writer, b. Belluno, 22 March, 1830. Author
of The
Religious Question in Italy, '64, Man and the Moral Sciences,
'69, in which
he rejects all metaphysics and supernaturalism, and
Thoughts, 1886.
Gage (Matilda
Joslyn), American reformer, b. Cicero, New
York, 24 March,
1826. Her father, Dr. H. Joslyn, was an active
abolitionist.
Educated at De Peyster and Hamilton, N.Y., in '45 she
married Henry
H. Gage. From '52 till '61 she wrote and spoke against
slavery. In '72
she was made President of the National Woman's
Suffrage
Association. She is joint author of The History of Woman
Suffrage with
Miss Anthony and Mrs. Stanton, and with them considers
the Church the
great obstacle to woman's progress.
Gagern (Carlos
von), b. Rehdorf, Neumark, 12 Dec. 1826. Educated at
Berlin,
travelled in '47 to Paris where he became acquainted with
Humboldt. He
went to Spain and studied Basque life in the Pyrenees;
served in the
Prussian army, became a friend of Wislicenus and the
free-religious
movement. In '52 he went to Mexico; here he had an
appointment under
General Miramon. In the French-Mexican expedition
he was taken
prisoner in '63; released in '65 he went to New York. He
was afterwards
military attaché for Mexico at Berlin. His freethought
appears in his
memoirs entitled Dead and Living, 1884, and in his
volume Sword
and Trowel, 1888. Died Madrid 19 Dec. 1885.
Gall (Franz
Joseph), founder of phrenology, b. Baden, 6 March, 1758. He
practised as a
physician in Vienna, devoting much time to the study of
the brain, and
began to lecture on craniology in that city. In 1802 he
was prohibited
from lecturing. He joined Dr. Spurzheim and they taught
their system in
various cities of Europe. Died at Paris, 22 Aug. 1828.
Galton
(Francis), grandson of Erasmus Darwin, was born in
1822. Educated
at Birmingham, he studied medicine at King's College,
London, and
graduated at Cambridge, '24. In '48 and '50 he travelled in
Africa. He
wrote a popular Art of Travel, and has distinguished himself
by many
writings bearing on heredity, of which we name Hereditary
Genius, '69, English
Men of Science, '70. In his Inquiries into Human
Faculty and
Developement, '83, he gives statistical refutation of the
theory of
prayer. Mr. Galton was Secretary of the British Association
from '63-68,
President of the Geographical Section in '62 and '72,
and of the
Anthropological Section in '77 and '85. He is President
of the
Anthropological Institute.
Gambetta (Léon
Michel), French orator and statesman, b. Cahors, 30
Oct. 1838. His
uncle was a priest and his father wished him to become
one. Educated
at a clerical seminary, he decided to study for the
law. In '59 he
was enrolled at the bar. His defence of Delescluze
(14 Nov. 1868),
in which he vigorously attacked the Empire, made
him famous.
Elected to the Assembly by both Paris and Marseilles, he
became the life
and leader of the Opposition. After Sedan he proclaimed
the Republic
and organised the national defences, leaving Paris, then
invested by the
Germans, in a balloon. From Tours he invigorated every
department, and
was the inspiration of the few successes won by the
French.
Gambetta preserved the Republic against all machinations,
and compelled
MacMahon to accept the second of the alternatives,
"Se
soumettre ou se demettre." He founded the Republique Française,
and became
President of the Chamber. Gambetta was a professed
disciple of
Voltaire, an admirer of Comte, and an open opponent of
clericalism.
All the members of his Cabinet were Freethinkers. Died
31 Dec. 1882.
His public secular funeral was one of the largest
gatherings ever
witnessed.
Gambon
(Ferdinand Charles), French Communist, b. Bourges, 19 March,
1820. In 1839
he became an Advocate, and he founded the Journal des
Ecoles. In '48
he was elected representative. The Empire drove him
into exile, he
returned at amnesty of '59. In '69 he refused to pay
taxes. In '71
was elected deputy at Paris, and was one of the last
defenders of
the Commune. Imprisoned, he was released in '82. Formed
a League for
abolishing standing army. Died 17 Sept. 1887.
Garat
(Dominique Joseph), Count, French revolutionist, orator and
writer, b. near
Bayonne, 8 September, 1749. He became a friend of
d'Alembert,
Diderot and Condercet, and in 1789 was elected to the
Assembly, where
he spoke in favor of the abolition of religion. As
minister of
justice he had to notify to Louis XVI his condemnation. He
afterwards
taught at the Normal School, and became a senator, count,
and president
of the Institute. Died at Urdains 9 December, 1833.
Garborg (Arne),
b. Western Coast of Norway, 25 Jan. 1851. Brought
up as a teacher
at the public schools, he entered the University of
Christiania in
1875. Founded a weekly paper Fedraheimen, written in
the dialect of
the peasantry. Held an appointment for some years
in the
Government Audit Office. In '81 he published a powerfully
written tale, A
Freethinker, which created a deal of attention. Since
he has
published Peasant Students, Tales and Legends, Youth, Men,
etc. He is one
of the wittiest and cleverest controversialists on
the Norwegian
press.
Garcia-Vao
(Antonio Rodriguez), Spanish poet and miscellaneous
writer, b.
Manzanares, 1862. Educated at the institute of Cardinal
Cisneros, where
he made brilliant studies. He afterwards studied
at the Madrid
University and became a lawyer. After editing several
papers, he
attached himself to the staff of Las Dominicales del Libre
Pensiamento.
Among his numerous works are a volume of poems, Echoes
of a Free Mind,
Love and the Monks, a satire, a study of Greco-Roman
philosophy,
etc. This promising student was stabbed in the back at
Madrid, 18 December,
1886.
Garde (Jehan de
la), bookseller, burnt together with four little
blasphemous
books at Paris in 1537.
Garibaldi
(Guiseppe), Italian patriot and general, b. Nice, 4
July, 1807. His
father, a small shipmaster, hoped he would become a
priest. Young
Garibaldi objected, preferring a sailor's life. A trip to
Rome made him
long to free his country. He joined Mazzini's movement,
"Young
Italy," and being implicated in the Genoese revolt of '33,
he fled at risk
of his life to Marseilles, where he learnt he was
sentenced to
death. He went to South America and fought on behalf of
the republic of
Uruguay. Here he met Anita Rivera, his beautiful and
brave wife, who
accompanied him in numerous adventures. Returning to
Italy he fought
against the Austrians in '48, and next year was the
soul of
resistance to the French troops, who came to restore Papal
authority.
Garibaldi had to retire; his wife died, and he escaped
with difficulty
to Genoa, whence he went to New York, working for
an Italian soap
and candlemaker at Staten Island. In '54 he returned
and bought a
farm on the isle of Caprera. In '59 he again fought the
Austrians, and
in May, '60, landed at Marsala, Sicily, took Palermo,
and drove
Francis II. from Naples. Though a Republican he saluted
Victor Emanuel
as King of Italy. Vexed by the cessation of Nice to
France, he
marched to Rome, but was wounded by Victor Emanuel's
troops, and
taken prisoner to Varignaro. Here he wrote his Rule
of the Monk, a
work exhibiting his love of liberty and hatred of
the priesthood.
In '64 he visited England, and was enthusiastically
received. In
'67 he again took part in an attempt to free Rome from
the Papal
government. In '71 he placed his sword at the service of
the French
Republic, and the only standard taken from the Germans was
captured by his
men. Elected Member of the Italian Parliament in his
later years he
did much to improve the city of Rome. In one of his
laconic letters
of '80, he says "Dear Friend,--Man has created God,
not God
man,--Yours ever, Garibaldi." He died 2 June, '82, and directed
in his will
that he should be cremated without any religious ceremony.
Garrison (H.
D.), Dr. of Chicago. Author of an able pamphlet on The
Absence of
Design in Nature, 1876.
Garth (Sir
Samuel), English poet, wit, and physician, b. Yorkshire,
1672, and
educated at Cambridge. He helped to establish dispensaries,
and lashed the
opposition in his poem The Dispensary. He was made
physician to
King George I. Died 18 June 1719.
Gaston (H.),
French author of a brochure with the title Dieu, voila,
l'ennemi, God
the enemy, 1882.
Gattina (F. P.
della). See Petruccelli.
Gautama (called
also Gotama, Buddha, and Sakyamuni), great Hindu
reformer and
founder of Buddhism, b. Kapilavastu, 624 B.C. Many
legends are
told of his birth and life. He is said to have been a
prince, who,
pained with human misery, left his home to dedicate
himself to
emancipation. His system was rather a moral discipline
than a
religion. Though he did not deny the Hindu gods he asserted
that all beings
were subject to "Karma," the result of previous
actions. He
said, "If a man for a hundred years worship Agni in the
forest, and if
he but for one moment pay homage to a man whose soul
is grounded in
true knowledge, better is that homage than sacrifice
for a hundred
years." According to Ceylonese writers Gautama Buddha
died at
Kusinagara, B.C. 543.
Gautier
(Théophile), exquisite French poet and prose writer, b. Tarbes,
31 Aug. 1811.
He wrote no definite work against priestcraft or
superstition,
but the whole tendency of his writings is Pagan. His
romanticism is
not Christian, and he made merry with "sacred themes"
as well as
conventional morality. Baudelaire called him an impeccable
master of
French literature, and Balzac said that of the two men who
could write
French, one was Théophile Gautier. Died 22 Oct. 1872.
Geijer (Erik
Gustaf), eminent Swedish historian, poet, and critic,
b. Wermland, 12
Jan. 1783. At the age of 20 he was awarded the Swedish
Academy's first
prize for a patriotical poem. At first a Conservative
in religious,
philosophical, and political matters he became through
his historical
researches an ardent adherent of the principles of the
French
revolution. His historical work and indictment against "The
Protestant
creed" was published in 1820 in a philosophical treatise,
Thorild, which
was prosecuted. His acquittal by an enlightened jury
stayed
religious prosecutions in Sweden for over sixty years. He
died 23 April
1847. A monument was erected to him last year at the
University of
Upsala, where he was professor of history. His works
have been
republished.
Geijerstam
(Gustaf), Swedish novelist, b. 1858. Is one of the
Freethinking
group of Young Sweden.
Geismar (Martin
von), editor of a Library of German Rationalists of
the eighteenth
century, in five parts, including some of the works
of Bahrdt,
Eberhardt, Knoblauch, etc, 1846-7. He also added pamphlets
entitled
Germany in the Eighteenth Century.
Gellion-Danglar
(Eugène), French writer, b. Paris, 1829. Became
Professor of
Languages at Cairo, wrote in La Pensée Nouvelle, was
made sous
préfect of Compiègne, '71, wrote History of the Revolution
of 1830, and A
Study of the Semites, '82.
Gemistos
(Georgios), surnamed Plethon, a philosophic reviver of Pagan
learning, b. of
noble parents at Byzantium about 1355. He early lost
his faith in
Christianity, and was attracted to the Moslem court
at Brusa. He
went to Italy in the train of John Palælogus in 1438,
where he
attracted much attention to the Platonic philosophy, by
which he sought
to reform the religious, political and moral life of
the time.
Gennadius, the patriarch of Constantinople, roundly accused
him of
Paganism. Died 1450.
Genard
(François), French satirist, b. Paris about 1722. He wrote
an irreligious
work called A Parallel of the Portraits of the Age,
with the
Pictures of the Holy Scriptures, for which he was placed in
the Bastille,
where it is believed he finished his days.
Gendre (Barbe),
Russian writer in French, b. Cronstadt, 15
Dec. 1842. She
was well educated at Kief, where she obtained a
gold medal. By
reading the works of Büchner, Buckle, and Darwin
she became a
Freethinker. Settling in Paris, she contributed
to the Revue
Internationale des Sciences, to La Justice and the
Nouvelle Revue,
etc. Some of her pieces have been reprinted under
the title Etudes
Sociales (Social Studies, Paris, 1886), edited by
Dr. C.
Letourneau. Died Dec. 1884.
Gener
(Pompeyo), Spanish philosopher, b. Barcelona, 1849, is a member
of the Society
of Anthropology, and author of a study of the evolution
of ideas
entitled Death and the Devil, Paris, '80. This able work is
dedicated to
Renan and has a preface by Littré. The author has since
translated it
into Spanish.
Genestet
(Petrus Augustus de), Dutch poet and Agnostic, b. Amsterdam,
21 Nov. 1829.
He studied theology, and for some years was a Protestant
minister. His
verses show him to be a Freethinker. Died at Rozendaal,
2 July, 1861.
Genin
(François), French philologist, b. Amiens, 16 Feb. 1803. He
became one of
the editors of the National, of Paris, about '37, and
wrote for it
spirited articles against the Jesuits. He published works
on The Jesuits
and the Universities, The Church or the State, etc. In
'45 the French
Academy awarded a prize to his Lexicon of the Language
of Molière. He
edited Diderot, '47, and is known for his researches
into the origin
of the French language and literature. Died Paris,
20 Dec. 1856.
Genovesi
(Antonio), Italian philosopher, b. Castiglione, 1
Nov. 1712. He
read lectures in philosophy at Naples, but by his
substitution of
doubt for traditional belief he drew upon himself
many attacks
from the clergy. The book by which he is best known is
his Italian
Morality. Died at Naples, 20 Sept. 1769.
Gensonne
(Armand), French lawyer and one of the leaders of the
Girondists, b.
Bordeaux, 10 Aug. 1758. He was elected to the
Legislative
Assembly in 1791, and to the Convention in 1792. In the
struggle with
the Jacobins, Gensonné was one of the most active and
eloquent
champions of his party. He was executed with his colleagues
31 Oct. 1793.
Gentilis
(Giovanni Valentino), Italian heretic, b. Consenza, Naples,
about 1520. He
fled to avoid persecution to Geneva, where in 1558
he was thrown
into prison at the instigation of Calvin. Fear of
sharing the
fate of Servetus made him recant. He wandered to Poland,
where he joined
Alciati and Biandrata, but he was banished for his
innovations.
Upon the death of Calvin he returned to Switzerland,
where he was
arrested for heresy, 11 June, 1566. After a long trial
he was
condemned for attacking the Trinity, and beheaded at Berne,
26 (?) Sept.
1566. Ladvocat says "He died very impiously, saying he
thought himself
honored in being martyred for the glory of the Father,
whereas the
apostles and other martyrs only died for the glory of
the Son."
Geoffrin (Marie
Therèse, neé Rodet), a French lady distinguished as a
patroness of
learning and the fine arts, b. Paris, 2 June, 1699. She
was a friend of
Alembert, Voltaire, Marmontel, Montesquieu, Diderot,
and the
encyclopædists, and was noted for her benevolence. Died at
Paris, 6 Oct.
1777.
Gerhard (H.),
Dutch socialist, b. Delft, 11 June, 1829. Educated at
an orphanage he
became a tailor, travelled through France, Italy,
and
Switzerland, and in '61 returned to Amsterdam. He wrote for De
Dageraad, and
was correspondent of the Internationale. Died 5 July,
1886.
Gerhard (A.
H.), son of foregoing, b. Lausanne, Switzerland, 7 April,
1858. Is
headmaster of a public school, and one of the editors of
De Dageraad.
Germond (J. B.
L.), editor of Marèchal's Dictionnaire des Athées,
Brussels, 1833.
Gertsen
(Aleksandr Ivanovich). See Herzen.
Ghillany
(Friedrich Wilhelm), German critic, b. at Erlangan, 18
April, 1807. In
'35 he became Professor of History at Nurenberg. His
principal work
is on Human Sacrifices among the Ancient Jews, Nurnberg,
'42. He also
wrote on the Pagan and Christian writers of the first
four centuries.
Under the pseudonym of "Richard von der Alm" he wrote
Theological
Letters, 1862; Jesus of Nazareth, 1868; and a collection of
the opinions of
heathen and Jewish writers of the first four centuries
upon Jesus and
Christianity. Died 25 June, 1876.
Giannone
(Pietro), Italian historian, b. Ischitella, Naples, 7 May,
1676. He
devoted many years to a History of the Kingdom of Naples,
in which he
attacked the papal power. He was excommunicated and fled
to Vienna,
where he received a pension from the Emperor, which was
removed on his
avowal of heterodox opinions. He was driven from Austria
and took refuge
in Venice: here also was an Inquisition. Giannone
was seized by
night and cast before sunrise on the papal shore. He
found means,
however, of escaping to Geneva. Having been enticed
into Savoy in
1736, he was arrested by order of the King of Sardinia,
and confined in
prison until his death, 7 March, 1748.
Gibbon
(Edward), probably the greatest of historians, b. Putney,
27 April 1737.
At Oxford be became a Romanist, but being sent to a
Calvinist at
Lausanne, was brought back to Protestantism. When visiting
the ruins of
the Capitol at Rome, he conceived the idea of writing
the Decline and
Fall of that empire. For twenty-two years before the
appearance of
his first volume he was a prodigy of arduous application,
his
investigations extending over the whole range of intellectual and
political
activity for nearly fifteen hundred years. His monumental
work, bridging
the old world and the new, is an historic exposure
of the crimes
and futility of Christianity. Gibbon was elected to
Parliament in
'74, but did not distinguish himself. He died of dropsy,
in London, 16
Jan. 1794.
Gibson (Ellen
Elvira), American lecturess, b. Winchenden, Mass. 8 May,
1821, and
became a public school teacher. Study of the Bible brought
her to the
Freethought platform. At the outbreak of the American Civil
War she
organised Ladies' Soldiers' Aid Societies, and was elected
chaplain to the
1st Wisconsin Volunteer Artillery. President Lincoln
endorsed the
appointment, which was questioned. She has written
anonymously
Godly Women of the Bible, and has contributed to the
Truthseeker,
Boston Investigator, and Ironclad Age, under her own
signature and
that of "Lilian."
Giessenburg
(Rudolf Charles d'Ablaing van), one of the most notable of
Dutch
Freethinkers, b. of noble family, 26 April, 1826. An unbeliever
in youth, in
'47 he went to Batavia, and upon his return set up as a
bookseller
under the name of R. C. Meijer. With Junghuhn and Günst,
he started de
Dageraad, and from '56-68 was one of the contributors,
usually under
his name "Rudolf Charles." He is a man of great
erudition, has
written Het verbond der vrije gedachte (The Alliance of
Freethought);
de Tydgenoot op het gebied der Rede (The Contemporary
in the Field of
Reason); De Regtbank des Onderzoeks (The Tribunal
of Inquiry);
Zedekunde en Christendom (Ethics and Christianity);
Curiositeiten
van allerlei aard (Curiosities of Various Kinds). He has
also published
the Religion and Philosophy of the Bible by W. J. Birch
and
Brooksbank's work on Revelation. He was the first who published
a complete
edition of the famous Testament du Curé Jean Meslier in
three parts
('64), has published the works of Douwes Dekker and other
writers, and
also Curieuse Gebruiken.
Gilbert
(Claude), French advocate, b. Dijon, 7 June, 1652. He had
printed at
Dijon, in 1700, Histoire de Calejava, ou de l'isle
des hommes
raisonables, avec le paralelle de leur Morale et du
Christianisme.
The book has neither the name of author or printer. It
was suppressed,
and only one copy escaped destruction, which was bought
in 1784 by the
Duc de La Vallière for 120 livres. It was in form of a
dialogue (329
pp.), and attacked both Judaism and Christianity. Gilbert
married in
1700, and died at Dijon 18 Feb. 1720.
Gill (Charles),
b. Dublin, 8 Oct. 1824, was educated at the University
of that city.
In '83 he published anonymously a work on The Evolution
of
Christianity. It was quoted by Mr. Foote in his defences before
Judge North and
Lord Coleridge, and in the following year he put his
name to a
second edition. Mr. Gill has also written a pamphlet on
the Blasphemy
Laws, and has edited, with an introduction, Archbishop
Laurence's Book
of Enoch, 1883.
Giles (Rev.
John Allen, D.Ph.), b. Mark, Somersetshire, 26
Oct. 1808.
Educated at the Charterhouse and Oxford, where he
graduated B.A.
as a double first-class in '28. He was appointed
head-master of
the City of London School, which post he left for
the Church. The
author of over 150 volumes of educational works,
including the
Keys to the Classics; privately he was a confirmed
Freethinker,
intimate with Birch, Scott, etc. His works bearing on
theology show
his heresy, the principal being Hebrew Records 1850,
Christian
Records 1854. These two were published together in amended
form in 1877.
He also wrote Codex Apocryphus Novi Testamenti 1852,
Writings of the
Early Christians of the Second Century 1857, and
Apostolic
Records, published posthumously in 1886. Died 24 Sept 1884.
Ginguene
(Pierre Louis), French historian b. Rennes, 25 April,
1748. Educated,
with Parny, by Jesuits. At Paris he became a
teacher,
embraced the Revolution, wrote on Rousseau and Rabelais,
and
collaborated with Chamfort in the Historic Pictures of the French
Revolution.
Thrown into prison during the Terror, he escaped on the
fall of
Robespierre, and became Director of Public Instruction. His
principal work
is a Literary History of Italy. Died Paris, 11
Nov. 1816.
Gilliland (M.
S.) Miss, b. Londonderry 1853, authoress of a little
work on The
Future of Morality, from the Agnostic standpoint, 1888.
Gioja
(Melchiorre), Italian political economist, b. Piazenza, 20
Sept. 1767. He
advocated republicanism, and was appointed head of a
bureau of
statistics. For his brochure La Scienza del Povero Diavolo
he was expelled
from Italy in 1809. He published works on Merit and
Rewards and The
Philosophy of Statistics. Died at Milan 2 Jan. 1829.
Girard
(Stephen), American philanthropist, b. near Bordeaux France,
24 May, 1750.
He sailed as cabin boy to the West Indies about 1760;
rose to be
master of a coasting vessel and earned enough to settle
in business in
Philadelphia in 1769. He became one of the richest
merchants in
America, and during the war of 1812 he took the whole
of a Government
loan of five million dollars. He called his vessels
after the names
of the philosophers Helvetius, Montesquieu, Voltaire,
Rousseau, etc.
He contributed liberally to all public improvements
and radical
movements. On his death he left large bequests to
Philadelphia,
the principal being a munificent endowment of a college
for orphans. By
a provision of his will, no ecclesiastic or minister
of any sect
whatever is to hold any connection with the college, or
even be
admitted to the premises as a visitor; but the officers of the
institution are
required to instruct the pupils in secular morality
and leave them
to adopt their own religious opinions. This will has
been most
shamefully perverted. Died Philadelphia, 26 Dec. 1831.
Glain (D. de
Saint). See Saint Glain.
Glennie (John
Stuart Stuart), living English barrister and
writer, author
of In the Morningland, or the law of the origin and
transformation
of Christianity, 1873, the most important chapter
of which was
reprinted by Thomas Scott, under the title, Christ and
Osiris. He has
also written Pilgrim Memories, or travel and discussion
in the
birth-countries of Christianity with the late H. T. Buckle,
1875.
Glisson
(Francis), English anatomist and physician, b. Rampisham,
Dorsetshire,
1597. He took his degree at Cambridge, and was there
appointed
Regius Professor of Physic, an office he held forty years. He
discovered
Glisson's capsule in the liver, and was the first to
attribute
irritability to muscular fibre. In his Tractatus de natura
substantiæ
energetica, 1672, he anticipates the natural school in
considering
matter endowed with native energy sufficient to account
for the
operations of nature. Dr. Glisson was eulogised by Harvey,
and Boerhaave
called him "the most accurate of all anatomists that
ever
lived." Died in 1677.
Godwin (Mary).
See Wollstonecraft.
Godwin
(William), English historian, political writer and novelist,
b. Wisbeach,
Cambridgeshire, 3 March, 1756. The son of a Dissenting
minister, he
was designed for the same calling. He studied at Hoxton
College, and
came out, as he entered, a Tory and Calvinist; but making
the
acquaintance of Holcroft, Paine, and the English Jacobins, his
views developed
from the Unitarianism of Priestley to the rejection
of the
supernatural. In '93 he published his republican work on
Political
Justice. In the following year he issued his powerful
novel of Caleb
Williams. He married Mary Wollstonecraft, '96; wrote,
in addition to
several novels and educational works, On Population,
in answer to
Malthus, 1820; a History of the Commonwealth, '24-28;
Thoughts on
Man, '31; Lives of the Necromancers, '34. Some Freethought
essays, which
he had intended to form into a book entitled The Genius
of Christianity
Unveiled, were first published in '73. They comprise
papers on such
subjects as future retribution, the atonement, miracles,
and character
of Jesus, and the history and effects of the Christian
religion. Died
7 April, 1836.
Goethe (Johann
Wolfgang von), Germany's greatest poet,
b.
Frankfort-on-Main, 28 Aug. 1749. He records that early in his
seventh year (1
Nov. 1758) the great Lisbon earthquake filled his
mind with
religious doubt. Before he was nine he could write several
languages.
Educated at home until sixteen, he then went to Leipsic
University. At
Strasburg he became acquainted with Herder, who directed
his attention
to Shakespeare. He took the degree of doctor in 1771,
and in the same
year composed his drama "Goetz von Berlichingen." He
went to
Wetzlar, where he wrote Sorrows of Werther, 1774, which at
once made him
famous. He was invited to the court of the Duke of
Saxe-Weimar and
loaded with honors, becoming the centre of a galaxy
of
distinguished men. Here he brought out the works of Schiller and
his own dramas,
of which Faust is the greatest. His chief prose work
is Wilhelm
Meister's Apprenticeship. His works are voluminous. He
declared
himself "decidedly non-Christian," and said his objects of
hate were
"the cross and bugs." He was averse to abstractions and
refused to
recognise a Deity distinct from the world. In philosophy
he followed
Spinoza, and he disliked and discountenanced the popular
creed. Writing
to Lavater in 1772 he said: "You look upon the gospel as
it stands as
the divinest truth: but even a voice from heaven would not
convince me
that water burns and fire quenches, that a woman conceives
without a man,
and that a dead man can rise again. To you, nothing is
more beautiful
than the Gospel; to me, a thousand written pages of
ancient and
modern inspired men are equally beautiful." Goethe was
opposed to
asceticism, and Pfleiderer admits "stood in opposition
to Christianity
not merely on points of theological form, but to
a certain
extent on points of substance too." Goethe devoted much
attention to
science, and he attempted to explain the metamorphosis
of plants on
evolutionary principles in 1790. Died 22 March, 1832.
Goldstuecker
(Theodor), Sanskrit scholar, of Jewish birth, but a
Freethinker by
conviction, b. Konigsberg 18 Jan. 1821; studied at Bonn
under Schlegel
and Lassen, and at Paris under Burnouf. Establishing
himself at
Berlin, he was engaged as tutor in the University and
assisted
Humboldt in the matter of Hindu philosophy in the Cosmos. A
democrat in
politics, he left Berlin at the reaction of '49 and came
to England,
where he assisted Professor Wilson in preparing his
Sanskrit-English
Dictionary. He contributed important articles on
Indian
literature to the Westminster Review, the Reader, the Athenæum
and Chambers'
Encyclopædia. Died in London, 6 March, 1872.
Goldziher
(Ignacz), Hungarian Orientalist, b. Stuhlweissenburg,
1850. Is since
1876 Doctor of Semitic Philology in Buda-pesth; is
author of
Mythology Among the Hebrews, which has been translated
by Russell
Martineau, '77, and has written many studies on Semitic
theology and
literature.
Gordon
(Thomas), Scotch Deist and political reformer, was b. Kells,
Kirkcudbright,
about 1684, but settled early in London, where he
supported
himself as a teacher and writer. He first distinguished
himself by two
pamphlets in the Bangorian controversy, which
recommended him
to Trenchard, to whom he became amanuensis, and
with whom he
published Cato's Letters and a periodical entitled The
Independent
Whig, which he continued some years after Trenchard's
death, marrying
that writer's widow. He wrote many pamphlets, and
translated from
Barbeyrac The Spirit of the Ecclesiastics of All
Ages. He also
translated the histories of Tacitus and Sallust. He died
28 July, 1750,
leaving behind him posthumous works entitled A Cordial
for Low Spirits
and The Pillars of Priestcraft and Orthodoxy Shaken.
Gorlæus
(David), a Dutch philosopher, b. at Utrecht, towards the end
of the
sixteenth century, has been accused of Atheism on account
of his
speculations in a work published after his death entitled
Exercitationes
Philosophicæ, Leyden 1620.
Govea or Gouvea
[Latin Goveanus] (Antonio), Portugese jurist and poet,
b. 1505,
studied in France and gained great reputation by his legal
writings.
Calvin classes him with Dolet, Rabelais, and Des Periers,
as an Atheist
and mocker. He wrote elegant Latin poems. Died at Turin,
5 March, 1565.
Gratiolet
(Louis-Pierre), French naturalist, b. Sainte Foy, 6 July
1815, noted for
his researches on the comparative anatomy of the
brain. Died at
Paris 15 Feb. 1865.
Graves
(Kersey), American, author of The Biography of Satan, 1865,
and The World's
Sixteen Crucified Saviors, 1876. Works of some vogue,
but little
value.
Gray (Asa),
American naturalist, b. 18 Nov. 1810, Paris, Oneida Co.,
New York.
Studied at Fairfield and became physician 1831. Wrote
Elements of
Botany, 1836, became Professor of Nat. Hist. at Harvard,
and was the
first to introduce Darwinism to America. Wrote an
Examination of
Darwin's Treatise 1861. Succeeded Agassiz as Governor of
Smithsonian
Institute, and worked on American Flora. Died at Cambridge,
Mass., 30 Jan.
1888.
Green (H. L.),
American Freethinker, b. 18 Feb. 1828. Edits the
Freethinker's
Magazine published at Buffalo, New York.
Greg (William
Rathbone), English Writer, b. Manchester 1809. Educated
at Edinburgh
university, he became attracted to economic studies
and literary
pursuits. He was one of the founders of the Manchester
Statistical
Society, a warm supporter of the Anti-Corn Law League,
and author of
one of its prize essays. In '40 he wrote on Efforts for
the Extinction
of the African Slave Trade. In '50 he published his
Creed of
Christendom, which has gone through eight editions, and in
1872 his
Enigmas of Life, of which there were thirteen editions in
his life. He
published also Essays on Political and Social Science,
and was a
regular contributor to the Pall Mall Gazette. His works
exhibit a
careful yet bold thinker and close reasoner. Died at
Wimbledon 15
Nov. 1881.
Grenier (Pierre
Jules), French Positivist, b. Beaumont, Perigord,
1838, author of
a medical examination of the doctrine of free will,
'68, which drew
out letter from Mgr. Dupanloup, Bishop of Orleans,
imploring him
to repudiate his impious doctrines. Also author of
Aphorisms on
the First Principles of Sociology, 1873.
"Grile
(Dod)," pen name of Ambrose Bierce, American humorist, who
wrote on the
San Francisco News-Letter. His Nuggets and Dust and
Fiend's
Delight, were blasphemous; has also written in Fun, and
published
Cobwebs from an Empty Skull, 1873.
Grimm
(Friedrich Melchior von), Baron. German philosophic writer in
French, b.
Ratisbon, 26 Dec. 1723. Going to France he became acquainted
with D'Holbach
and with Rousseau, who was at first his friend, but
afterwards his
enemy. He became secretary to the Duke of Orleans,
and wrote in
conjunction with Diderot and Raynal caustic literary
bulletins
containing criticisms on French literature and art. In
1776 he was
envoy from the Duke of Saxe Gotha to the French Court,
and after the
French Revolution was appointed by Catherine of Russia
her minister at
Hamburg. Grimm died at Gotha, 19 Dec. 1807. He is
chiefly known
by his literary correspondence with Diderot published
in seventeen
vols. 1812-1813.
Gringore
(Pierre), French poet and dramatist, b. about 1475, satirised
the pope and
clergy as well as the early reformers. Died about 1544.
Grisebach
(Eduard), German writer, b. Gottingen 9 Oct. 1845. Studied
law, but
entered the service of the State and became Consul at
Bucharest,
Petersburg, Milan and Hayti. Has written many poems, of
which the best
known is The New Tanhäuser, first published anonymously
in '69, and
followed by Tanhäuser in Rome, '75. Has also translated
Kin Ku Ki Kuan,
Chinese novels. Is a follower of Schopenhauer, whose
bibliography he
has compiled, 1888.
Grote (George),
the historian of Greece, b. near Beckenham, Kent,
17 Nov. 1794.
Descended from a Dutch family. He was educated for
the employment
of a banker and was put to business at the age of
sixteen. He was
however addicted to literary pursuits, and became
a friend and
disciple of James Mill and Jeremy Bentham. In 1820 he
married a
cultured lady, Harriet Lewin, and in '22 his Analysis of
the Influence
of Natural Religion was published by Carlile, under
the pen name of
Philip Beauchamp. He also wrote in the Westminster
Review. In '33
he was elected as Radical M.P. for the City of London
and retained
his seat till '41. He was chiefly known in Parliament
for his
advocacy of the ballot. In '46-'56 he published his famous
History of Greece,
which cost him the best years of his life; this was
followed by
Plato and the other Companions of Socrates. His review
of J. S. Mill's
Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy,
'61, showed he
retained his Freethought until the end of his life. He
died 18 June
'71, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
Grote (Harriet)
nee Lewin, wife of the above, b. 1792, shared in his
opinions and
wrote his life. Died 29 Dec. 1878.
Gruen (Karl)
German author, b. 30 Sept. 1817, Lüdenschied, Westphalia,
studied at Bonn
and Berlin. In '44 he came to Paris, was a friend
to Proudhon and
translated his Philosophy of Misery, was arrested in
'49 and
condemned to exile; lived at Brussels till '62, when he was
made professor
at Frankfort. He became professor of English at the
College of
Colmar, established a Radical journal the Mannheim Evening
News and he
wrote Biographical Studies of Schiller, '44, and Feuerbach,
'71. A Culture
History of the 16th-17th Centuries, and The Philosophy
of the Present,
'76. Died at Vienna 17 February, 1887.
Gruet
(Jacques), Swiss Freethinker, tortured and put to death for
blasphemy by
order of Calvin at Geneva, 26 July, 1547. After his death
papers were
found in his possession directed against religion. They
were burnt by
the common hangman, April, 1550.
Gruyer (Louis
Auguste Jean François-Philippe), Belgian philosopher,
b. Brussels, 15
Nov. 1778. He wrote an Essay of Physical Philosophy,
1828, Tablettès
Philosophiques, '42. Principles of Physical
Philosophy,
'45, etc. He held the atomic doctrine, and that matter
was eternal.
Died Brussels 15 Oct. 1866.
Guadet
(Marguerite Elie), Girondin, b. Saint Emilion (Gironde),
20 July, 1758.
He studied at Bordeaux, and became an advocate in
'81. He threw
himself enthusiastically into the Revolution, and was
elected Deputy
for the Gironde. His vehement attacks on the Jacobins
contributed to
the destruction of his party, after which he took
refuge, but was
arrested and beheaded at Bordeaux, 15 June, 1794.
Gubernatis
(Angelo de), see De Gubernatis.
Guépin (Ange),
French physician, b. Pontivy, 30 Aug. 1805. He became
M.D. in '28.
After the revolution of July, '30, Dr. Guépin was made
Professor at
the School of Medicine at Nantes. He formed the first
scientific and
philosophical congress, held there in '33. In '48 he
became
Commissaire of the Republic at Nantes, and in '50 was deprived
of his
situation. In '54 he published his Philosophy of the Nineteenth
Century. After
the fall of the Empire, M. Guépin became Prefet of La
Loire
Inférieure, but had to resign from ill-health. Died at Nantes,
21 May, 1873,
and was buried without any religious ceremony.
Gueroult
(Adolphe), French author, b. Radepont (Eure), 29
Jan. 1810.
Early in life he became a follower of Saint Simon. He wrote
to the Journal
des Debats, the Republique, Credit and Industrie, and
founded
l'Opinion National. He was elected to the Legislature in '63,
when he
advocated the separation of Church and State. Died at Vichy,
21 July, 1872.
Guerra
Junqueiro. Portuguese poet, b. 1850. His principal work is a
poem on The
Death of Don Juan, but he has also written The Death of
Jehovah, an
assault upon the Catholic faith from the standpoint of
Pantheism.
Portuguese critics speak highly of his powers.
Guerrini
(Olindo), Italian poet, b. Forli, 4 Oct. 1845. Educated
at Ravenna,
Turin, and Bologna University; he has written many fine
poems under the
name of Lorenzo Stecchetti. In the preface to Nova
Polemica he
declares "Primo di tutto dice, non credo in Dio" ("First
of all I say do
not believe in God.")
Gueudeville
(Nicolas), French writer, b. Rouen, 1654. He became a
Benedictine
monk, and was distinguished as a preacher, but the boldness
of his opinions
drew on him the punishment of his superiors. He escaped
to Holland, and
publicly abjured Catholicism. He taught literature
and philosophy
at Rotterdam, wrote the Dialogue of the Baron de la
Hontan with an
American Savage Amst. 1704, appended to the Travels
of La Hontan,
1724, edited by Gueudeville. This dialogue is a bitter
criticism of
Christian usages. He translated Erasmus's Praise of Folly
(1713), More's
Utopia (1715), and C. Agrippa, Of the Uncertainty and
Vanity of
Sciences (1726). Died at the Hague, 1720.
Guichard
(Victor), French writer, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1803. He became
Mayor of Sens,
and was elected deputy for the Yonne department. He
was exiled in
'52, but again elected in '71. His principal work is
La Liberté de
Penser, fin du Pouvoir Spirituel (1868). Died at Paris,
11th Nov. 1884.
Guild (E. E.),
b. in Connecticut, 6 May, 1811. In '35 he became
a Christian
minister, but after numerous debates became turned
Universalist.
In '44 he published The Universalist Book of Reference,
which went
through several editions. It was followed by Pro and Con,
in which he
gives the arguments for and against Christianity.
Guirlando
(Giulio) di Treviso. Italian heretic, put to death at Venice
for
anti-trinitarian heresy, 19 Oct. 1562.
Gundling
(Nicolaus Hieronymus), German scholar and Deistic philosopher,
b. near
Nuremberg, 25 Feb. 1671. He wrote a History of the Philosophy
of Morals,
1706, and The Way to Truth, 1713. One of the first German
eclectics, he
took much from Hobbes and Locke, with whom he derived
all ideas from
experience. Died at Halle, 16 Dec. 1729.
Gunning
(William D.), American scientific professor, b. Bloomingburg,
Ohio. Graduated
at Oberlin and studied under Agassiz. He wrote Life
History of our
Planet, Chicago, 1876, and contributed to The Open
Court. Died
Greeley, Colorado, 8 March, 1888.
Günst (Dr.
Frans Christiaan), Dutch writer and publisher, b. Amsterdam,
19 Aug. 1823.
He was intended for a Catholic clergyman; studied
at Berne, where
he was promoted '47. Returning to Holland he became
bookseller and
editor at Amsterdam. He was for many years secretary of
the City
Theatre. Günst contributed to many periodicals, and became
a friend of
Junghuhn, with whom he started De Dageraad, the organ of
the Dutch
Freethinkers, which he edited from '55 to '67. He usually
contributed
under pseudonyms as "Mephistho" or ([therefore]). He was
for many years
President of the Independent Lodge of Freemasons,
"Post
Nubila Lux," and wrote on Adon Hiram, the oldest legend of
the Freemasons.
He also wrote Wijwater voor Roomsch Katholieken
(Holy Water for
the Roman Catholics); De Bloedgetuigen der Spaansche
Inquisitie (The
Martyrs of the Spanish Inquisition, '63); and Heidenen
en Jezuieten,
eene vergelijking van hunne zedeleer (Pagans and Jesuits,
a comparison of
their morals, '67). In his life and conversation he
was frater
gaudens. Died 29 Dec. 1886.
Guyau (Marie
Jean), French philosopher, b. 1854, was crowned at the
age of 19 by
the Institute of France for a monograph on Utilitarian
morality. In
the following year he had charge of a course of philosophy
at the
Condorcet lycée at Paris. Ill health, brought on by excess of
work, obliged
him to retire to Mentone, where he occupied himself
with
literature. His principal works are La Morale d'Epicure (the
morality of
Epicurus), in relation to present day doctrines, 1878,
La Morale
Anglaise Contemporaine (Contemporary English Ethics), '79,
crowned by the
Academy of Moral Sciences. Verses of a philosopher,
'81. Esquisse
d'une morale sans obligation ni sanction (Sketch of
morality
without obligation or sanction,) '84, and L'Irreligion de
l'Avenir (the
Irreligion of the Future) '87. M. Guyau was a follower of
M. Fouillée,
but all his works bear the impress of profound thought and
originality. A
chief doctrine is the expansion of life. Died Mentone,
31 March, 1888.
Guyot (Yves),
French writer and statesman, b. Dinan, 1843. He wrote
with Sigismond
Lacroix a Study of the Social Doctrines of Christianity,
'73, and a work
on morality in the Bibliothèque Matérialiste. Elected
on the
Municipal Council of Paris '74-78, he has since been a deputy
to the Chamber,
and is now a member of the government. He has written
the Principles
of Social Economy, '84, and many works on that topic;
has edited
Diderot's La Religieuse and the journals Droits de l'homme
and le Bien
public.
Gwynne
(George), Freethought writer in the Reasoner and National
Reformer, under
the pen-name of "Aliquis." His reply to J. H. Newman's
Grammar of
Assent shewed much acuteness. He served the cause both by
pen and purse.
Died 25 Sept. 1873.
Gyllenborg
(Gustaf Fredrik), Count. Swedish poet, b. 6 Dec. 1731, was
one of the
first members of the Academy of Stockholm and Chancellor
of Upsala
University. He published satires, fables, odes, etc.,
among which may
be named The Passage of the Belt. His opinions were
Deistic. Died
30 March, 1808.
Haeckel (Ernst
Heinrich Philipp August), German scientist, b. Potsdam,
16 Feb. 1834;
studied medicine and science at Würzburg, Berlin,
and Vienna. In
'59 he went to Italy and studied zoology at Naples,
and two years
later was made Professor of Zoology at Jena. Between
'66 and '75 he
travelled over Europe besides visiting Syria and Egypt,
and later he
visited India and Ceylon, writing an interesting account
of his travels.
He is the foremost German supporter of evolution; his
Natural History
of Creation, '68, having gone through many editions,
and been
translated into English '76, as have also his Evolution
of Man, 2 vols.
'79, and Pedigree of Man, '83. Besides numerous
monographs and
an able work on Cellular Psychology, Professor Haeckel
has published
important Popular Lectures on Evolution, '78, and on
Freedom in
Science and Teaching, published with a prefatory note by
Professor
Huxley, '79.
Hagen (Benjamin
Olive), Socialist, b. 25 June, 1791. About the year
1841 his
attention was attracted to the Socialists by the abuse they
received. Led
thus to inquire, he embraced the views of Robert Owen,
and was their
chief upholder for many years in the town of Derby,
where he lived
to be upwards of seventy years of age. His wife also
deserves
mention as an able lady of Freethought views.
Halley
(Edmund), eminent English astronomer, known in his lifetime
as "the
Infidel Mathematician," b. Haggerston, London, 29 Oct. 1656;
educated at
Oxford. At twenty he had made observations of the planets
and of the
spots on the sun. In Nov. '76 he went to St. Helena
where he
prepared his Catalogue of Southern Stars, '79. He also
found how to
take the sun's parallax by means of the transits of
Mercury or
Venus. In '78 he was elected a F.R.S. Two years later
he made
observation on "Halley's comet," and in '83 published his
theory of the
variation of the magnet. He became a friend of Sir
Isaac Newton,
whom he persuaded to publish his Principia. In '98 he
commanded a
scientific expedition to the South Atlantic. In 1713 he
was made sec.
of the Royal Society and in 1720 Astronomer-royal. He
then undertook
a task which required nineteen years to perform, viz:
to observe the
moon throughout an entire revolution of her nodes. He
lived to finish
this task. Died 14 Jan. 1742. Halley was the first who
conceived that
fixed stars had a proper motion in space. Chalmers in
his
Biographical Dictionary says, "It must be deeply regretted that
he cannot be
numbered with those illustrious characters who thought
it not beneath
them to be Christians."
Hammon (W.),
pseudonym of Turner William, q. v.
Hamond or
Hamont (Matthew), English heretic, by trade a ploughwright,
of Hethersett,
Norfolk, burnt at Norwich, May 1579, for holding
"that the
New Testament and the Gospel of Christ were pure folly,
a human
invention, a mere fable." He had previously been set in the
pillory and had
both his ears cut off.
Hannotin
(Emile), French Deist, b. Bar le Duc in 1812, and some
time editor of
the Journal de la Meuse. Author of New Philosophical
Theology, '46;
Great Questions, '67; Ten Years of Philosophical
Studies, '72;
and an Essay on Man, in which he seeks to explain life
by sensibility.
Hanson (Sir
Richard Davies), Chief Justice of South Australia,
b. London, 5
Dec. 1805. He practised as attorney for a short time in
London, and
wrote for the Globe and Morning Chronicle. In 1830 he took
part in the
attempt to found a colony in South Australia. In 1851 he
became
Advocate-General of the colony, and subsequently in 1861 Chief
Justice. In
1869 he was knighted. He wrote on Law in Nature 1865,
The Jesus of
History 1869, and St. Paul 1875. Hanson wrote Letters
to and from
Rome A.D. 61, 62 and 63. Selected and translated by
C.V.S. 1873.
Died at Adelaide 10 Mar. 1876.
Hardwicke
(Edward Arthur), M.D., eldest son of Junius Hardwicke,
F.R.C.S., of
Rotherham, Yorks. In '75 he qualified as a surveyor, and
in '86 as a
physician. For twelve years he was Surgeon Superintendent
of the
Government Emigration Service. He is an Agnostic of the school
of Herbert
Spencer, and has contributed to Freethought and scientific
periodicals.
Hardwicke
(Herbert Junius), M.D., brother of above, b. Sheffield, 26
Jan. 1850.
Studied at London, Edinburgh and Paris. In '78 he became a
member of the
Edinburgh College of Physicians. Next year he was the
principal agent
in establishing the Sheffield Public Hospital for
Skin Diseases.
Besides numerous medical works, Dr. Hardwicke set up
a press of his
own in order to print The Popular Faith Unveiled, the
publishers
requiring guarantee in consequence of the prosecution of
Mr. Foote
('84), and Evolution and Creation ('87). He has contributed
to the Agnostic
Annual, and has recently written Rambles in Spain,
Italy and
Morocco ('89).
Harriot
(Thomas), English mathematician, b. Oxford, 1560, accompanied
Raleigh to
Virginia and published an account of the expedition. He was
noted for his
skill in algebra, and A. Wood says "He was a Deist." Died
21 July 1621.
Harrison
(Frederic), M.A., English Positivist, b. London 18 Oct. 1831,
educated at
London and Oxford, when he was 1st class in classics. He
was called to
the bar in '58. He has since been appointed Professor
of
Jurisprudence and International Law. He has written many important
articles in the
high-class reviews, and has published The Meaning
of History,
Order and Progress, and on The Choice of Books and Other
Literary
Pieces, '86, and has translated vol. ii of Comte's Positive
Polity. He was
one of the founders of the Positivist school, '70,
and of Newton
Hall in '81. A fine stylist, his addresses and magazine
articles bear
the stamp of a cultured man of letters.
Hartmann (Karl
Robert Eduard), German pantheistic pessimist
philosopher, b.
Berlin, 23 Feb. 1842. In '58 he entered the Prussian
army, but an
affection of the knee made him resign in '65. By the
publication of
his Philosophy of the Unconscious in '69, he became
famous, though
it was not translated into English until '84. He
has since
written numerous works of which we name Self-Dissolution
of Christianity
and The Religion of the Future, '75, The Crisis of
Christianity in
Modern Theology, '80, The Religious Consciousness of
Mankind, '81,
and Modern Problems, '86. Latterly Hartmann has turned
his attention
to the philosophy of politics.
Hartogh Heys
van Zouteveen (Dr. Herman), a learned Dutch writer,
b. Delft 13
Feb. 1841. He studied law and natural philosophy at Leyden,
and graduated
doctor of law in '64 and doctor of natural philosophy in
'66. In '66 he
received a gold medal from the king of Holland for a
treatise on the
synthesis of organic bodies. Dr. Hartogh was some time
professor of
chemistry and natural history at the Hague, but lived at
Delft, where he
was made city councillor and in '69 and '70 travelled
through Egypt
and Nubia as correspondent of Het Vaderland and was the
guest of the
Khedive. He translated into Dutch Darwin's Descent of
Man and
Expressions of the Emotions, both with valuable annotations
of his own. He
has also translated and annotated some of the works
of Ludwig
Büchner and "Carus Sterne," from the German, and works from
the French,
besides writing several original essays on anthropology,
natural
history, geology, and allied sciences, contributing largely
to the spread
of Darwinian ideas in Holland. In '72 he visited the
United States
and the Pacific coast. Since '73 he has resided at
Assen, of which
he was named member of the city council, but could
not take his
seat because he refused the oath. He is a director of
the Provincial
Archæological Museum at Assen, and a member of the
Dutch Literary
Society the Royal Institution of Netherlands, India,
and other
scientific associations. For a long while he was a member
of the Dutch
Freethinkers' Society, De Dageraad, of which he became
president. To
the organ De Dageraad he contributed important works,
such as Jewish
Reports Concerning Jesus of Nazareth and the Origin
of Religious
Ideas, the last of which has been published separately.
Haslam (Charles
Junius), b. Widdington, Northumberland, 24 April,
1811. He spent
most of his life near Manchester, where he became a
Socialist and
published Letters to the Clergy of all Denominations,
showing the
errors, absurdities, and irrationalities of their
doctrines, '38.
This work went through several editions, and the
publishers were
prosecuted for blasphemy. He followed it by Letters to
the Bishop of
Exeter, containing materials for deciding the question
whether or not
the Bible is the word of God, '41, and a pamphlet Who
are the
Infidels? In '61 he removed to Benton, where he has since
lived. In '85
he issued a pamphlet entitled The Suppression of War.
Hassell
(Richard), one of Carlile's shopmen, sentenced to two years
imprisonment in
Newgate for selling Paine's Age of Reason, 28 May,
1824. He died
in October 1826.
Hattem
(Pontiaam van), Dutch writer, b. Bergen 1641. He was a
follower of
Spinoza, inclined to Pantheistic mysticism, and had
several
followers. Died 1706.
Haureau (Jean
Barthelemy), French historian, b. Paris 1812. At the
age of twenty
he showed his sympathy with the Revolution by a work
on The
Mountain. In turn journalist and librarian he has produced
many important
works, of which we name his Manual of the Clergy,
'44, which drew
on him attacks from the clericals, and his erudite
Critical
Examination of the Scholastic Philosophy, '50.
Hauy
(Valentine), French philanthropist, b. Saint-Just 13 Nov. 1745. He
devoted much
attention to enabling the blind to read and founded the
institute for
the young blind in 1784. He was one of the founders
of
Theophilantropy. In 1807 he went to Russia, where he stayed till
1817, devoting
himself to the blind and to telegraphy. Died at Paris
18 March, 1822.
Havet (Ernest
August Eugène), French scholar and critic, b. Paris,
11 April, 1813.
In '40 he was appointed professor of Greek literature
at the Normal
School. In '55 he was made professor of Latin eloquence
at the Collége
de France. In '63 an article on Renan's Vie de Jesus in
the Revue des
Deux Mondes excited much attention, and was afterwards
published
separately. His work on Christianity and its Origins,
4 vols.
1872-84, is a masterpiece of rational criticism.
Hawkesworth
(John), English essayist and novelist, b. in London about
1715. Became
contributor to the Gentleman's Magazine and editor of
the Adventurer.
In '61 he edited Swift's works with a life of that
author. He
compiled an account of the voyages of Byron, Wallis,
Carteret, and
Cook for government, for which he received £6,000;
but the work
was censured as incidentally attacking the doctrine of
Providence. His
novel Almoran and Hamet was very popular. Died at
Bromley, Kent,
17 Nov. 1773.
Hawley (Henry),
a Scotch major-general, who died in 1765, and by the
terms of his
will prohibited Christian burial.
Hebert (Jacques
René), French revolutionist, b. Alençon 15 Nov. 1757,
published the
notorious Père Duchêsne, and with Chaumette instituted
the Feasts of
Reason. He was denounced by Saint Just, and guillotined
2 March 1794.
His widow, who had been a nun, was executed a few
days later.
Hegel (Georg
Wilhelm Friedrich), German metaphysician b. Stuttgart,
27 Aug. 1770.
He studied theology at Tübingen, but, becoming acquainted
with Schelling,
devoted his attention to philosophy. His Encyclopædia
of the
Philosophical Sciences made a deep impression in Germany, and
two schools
sprang up, one claiming it as a philosophical statement
of
Christianity, the other as Pantheism hostile to revelation. Hegel
said students
of philosophy must begin with Spinozism. He is said to
have remarked
that of all his many disciples only one understood him,
and he
understood him falsely. He was professor at Jena, Heidelberg,
and Berlin, in
which last city he died 14 Nov. 1831, and was buried
beside Fichte.
Heine
(Heinrich), German poet and littérateur, b. of Jewish parents
at Dusseldorf,
31 Dec. 1797. He studied law at Bonn, Berlin, and
Göttingen;
became acquainted with the philosophy of Spinoza and
Hegel;
graduated LL.D., and in June 1825 renounced Judaism and
was baptised.
The change was only formal. He satirised all forms
of religious
faith. His fine Pictures of Travel was received with
favor and
translated by himself into French. His other principal
works are the
Book of Songs, History of Recent Literature in Germany,
The Romantic
School, The Women of Shakespeare, Atta Troll and other
poems. In 1835
he married a French lady, having settled in Paris,
where "the
Voltaire of Germany" became more French than German. About
1848 he became
paralysed and lost his eyesight, but he still employed
himself in
literary composition with the aid of an amanuensis. After
an illness of
eight years, mostly passed in extreme suffering on his
"mattress
grave," he died 17 Feb. 1856. Heine was the greatest and
most
influential German writer since Goethe. He called himself a
Soldier of
Freedom, and his far-flashing sword played havoc with the
forces of
reaction.
Heinzen (Karl
Peter) German-American poet, orator and politician,
b. near
Dusseldorf, 22 Feb. 1809. He studied medicine at Bonn,
and travelled
to Batavia, an account of which he published (Cologne
1842). A
staunch democrat, in 1845 he published at Darmstadt a work
on the Prussian
Bureaucracy, for which he was prosecuted and had to
seek shelter in
Switzerland. At Zurich he edited the German Tribune
and the
Democrat. At the beginning of '48 he visited New York but
returned to
participate in the attempted German Revolution. Again
"the
regicide" had to fly and in August '50 returned to New York. He
wrote on many
papers and established the Pioneer (now Freidenker),
first in
Louisville, then in Cincinnati, then in New York, and from
'59 in Boston.
He wrote many works, including Letters on Atheism,
which appeared
in The Reasoner 1856, Poems, German Revolution, The
Heroes of
German Communism, The Rights of Women, Mankind the Criminal,
Six Letters to
a Pious Man (Boston 1869), Lessons of a Century,
and What is
Humanity? (1877.) Died Boston 12 Nov. 1880.
Hellwald
(Friedrich von), German geographer, b. Padua 29 March 1842,
and in addition
to many works on various countries has written an
able Culture
History, 1875.
Helmholtz
(Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von) German scientist, b. Potsdam
31 Aug. 1821.
Distinguished for his discoveries in acoustics, optics
and
electricity, he is of the foremost rank among natural philosophers
in Europe.
Among his works we mention The Conservation of Force (1847),
and Popular
Scientific Lectures (1865-76.) Professor Helmholtz rejects
the design
hypothesis.
Helvetius
(Claude Adrien) French philosopher, b. Paris 18
Jan. 1715.
Descended from a line of celebrated physicians, he had a
large fortune
which he dispensed in works of benevolence. Attracted
by reading
Locke he resigned a lucrative situation as farmer-general
to devote himself
to philosophy. In August 1758 he published a work
On the Mind (De
L'Esprit) which was condemned by Pope Clement XIII,
31 Jan. 1759,
and burnt by the order of Parliament 6 Feb. 1759 for the
hardihood of
his materialistic opinions. Mme. Du Deffand said "he told
everybody's
secret." It was republished at Amsterdam and London. He
also wrote a
poem On Happiness and a work on Man his Faculties and
Education. He
visited England and Prussia and became an honored guest
of Frederick
the Great. Died 26 Dec. 1771. His wife, née Anne Catherine
De Lingville,
b. 1719, after his death retired to Auteuil, where her
house was the
rendezvous of Condillac, Turgot, d'Holbach, Morellet,
Cabanis,
Destutt de Tracy, etc. This re-union of Freethinkers was
known as the
Société d'Auteuil. Madame Helvetius died 12 August 1800.
Henault, or
Hesnault (Jean), French Epicurean poet of the 17th century,
son of a Paris
baker, was a pupil of Gassendi, and went to Holland to
see Spinoza.
Bayle says he professed Atheism, and had composed three
different
systems of the mortality of the soul. His most famous sonnet
is on The
Abortion. Died Paris, 1682.
Henin de
Cuvillers (Etienne Felix), Baron, French general and writer,
b. Balloy, 27
April, 1755. He served as diplomatist in England, Venice,
and
Constantinople. Employed in the army of Italy, he was wounded at
Arcola, 26
Sept. '96. He was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honor in
1811. He wrote
much, particularly on magnetism. In the 8th vol. of
his Archives du
Magnétisme Animal, he suggests that the miracles of
Jesus were not
supernatural, but wrought by means of magnetism learnt
in Egypt. In
other writings, especially in reflections on the crimes
committed in
the name of religion, '22, he shows himself the enemy
of fanaticism
and intolerance. Died 2 August, 1841.
Hennell
(Charles Christian), English Freethinker, b. 9 March, 1809,
author of an
able Inquiry concerning the Origin of Christianity,
first published
in '38, a work which powerfully influenced "George
Eliot,"
and a translation of which was introduced to German readers
by Dr. D. F.
Strauss. It was Hennell who induced "George Eliot"
to translate
Strauss's Life of Jesus. He also wrote on Christian
Theism. Hennell
lived most of his time in Coventry. He was married
at London in
'39, and died 2 Sept. 1850.
Herault de
Sechelles (Marie Jean), French revolutionist, b. of
noble family,
Paris, 1760. Brought up as a friend of Buffon and
Mirabeau, he
gained distinction as a lawyer and orator before the
Revolution.
Elected to the Legislative Assembly in '91, he was made
President of
the Convention, 2 Nov. 92. He edited the document known
as the
Constitution of 1793, and was president and chief speaker at
the national
festival, 10 Aug. '93. He drew on himself the enmity
of Robespierre,
and was executed with Danton and Camille Desmoulins,
5 April, 1794.
Herbart (Johann
Friedrich), b. Oldenburg 4 May 1776. In 1805 he was
made professor
of philosophy at Göttingen, and in 1808 became Kant's
successor at
Königsberg and opposed his philosophy. Though religiously
disposed, his
philosophy has no room for the notion of a God. He was
recalled to
Göttingen, where he died 14 Aug. 1841.
Herbert
(Edward), Lord of Cherbury, in Shropshire, b. Montgomery
Castle, 1581.
Educated at Oxford, after which he went on his
travels. On his
return he was made one of the king's counsellors,
and soon after
sent as ambassador to France to intercede for the
Protestants. He
served in the Netherlands, and distinguished himself
by romantic
bravery. In 1625 he was made a peer of Ireland, and in
'31 an English
peer. During the civil wars he espoused the side of
Parliament. His
principal work is entitled De Veritate, the object of
which was to
assert the sufficiency of natural religion apart from
revelation. He
also wrote Lay Religion, his own Memoirs, a History
of Henry VIII.,
etc. Died 20 Aug. 1648.
Hertell
(Thomas), judge of the Marine Court of New York, and for some
years Member of
the Legislature of his State. He wrote two or three
small works
criticising Christian Theology, and exerted his influence
in favour of
State secularization.
Hertzen or
Gertsen (Aleksandr Ivanovich), Russian patriot, chief of
the
revolutionary party, b. Moscow, 25 March, 1812. He studied at
Moscow
University, where he obtained a high degree. In '34 he was
arrested for
Saint Simonian opinions and soon afterwards banished
to Viatka,
whence he was permitted to return in '37. He was expelled
from Russia in
'42, visited Italy, joined the "Reds" at Paris in '48,
took refuge at
Geneva, and soon after came to England. In '57 he set
up in London a
Russian printing press for the publication of works
prohibited in
Russia, and his publications passed into that country in
large numbers.
Among his writings are Dilettantism in Science, '42;
Letters on the
Study of Nature, '45-46; Who's to Blame? '57; Memoirs
of the Empress
Catherine, and My Exile, '55. In '57 Herzen started the
magazine the
Kolokol or Bell. Died at Paris, 21 Jan. 1870. His son,
Alessandro
Herzen, b. Wladimar, 1839, followed his father's fortunes,
learnt most of the
European languages and settled at Florence, where
he did much to
popularise physiological science. He has translated
Maudsley's
Physiology of Mind, and published a physiological analysis
of human free
will.
Herwegh
(Georg), German Radical and poet, b. Stuttgart, 31
May, 1817.
Intended for the Church, he left that business for
Literature. His
Gedichte eines Lebendigen (Poems of a Living Man)
aroused
attention by their boldness. In '48 he raised a troop
and invaded
Baden, but failed, and took refuge in Switzerland and
Paris. Died at
Baden-Baden, 7 April, 1875.
Hetherington
(Henry), English upholder of a free press, b. Soho,
London, 1792.
He became a printer, and was one of the most energetic
of working men
engaged in the foundation of mechanics' institutes. He
also founded
the Metropolitan Political Union in March, 1830, which
was the germ
both of trades' unionism and of the Chartist movement. He
resisted the
"taxes upon knowledge" by issuing unstamped The Poor Man's
Guardian, a
weekly newspaper for the people, established, contrary to
"law,"
to try the power of "might" against "right," '31-35. For
this
he twice
suffered sentences of six months' imprisonment. He afterwards
published The
Unstamped, and his persistency had much to do in removing
the taxes. While
in prison he wrote his Cheap Salvation in consequence
of conversation
with the chaplain of Clerkenwell Gaol. On Dec. 8, '40,
he was tried
for "blasphemous libel" for publishing Haslam's Letters
to the Clergy,
and received four month's imprisonment. Hetherington
published A Few
Hundred Bible Contradictions, and other Freethought
works. Much of
his life was devoted to the propaganda of Chartism. He
died 24 Aug.
1849, leaving a will declaring himself an Atheist.
Hetzer
(Ludwig), anti-Trinitarian martyr, b. Bischopzell, Switzerland;
was an
Anabaptist minister at Zurich. He openly denied the doctrine of
the Trinity,
and was condemned to death by the magistrates of Constance
on a charge of
blasphemy. The sentence was carried out 4 Feb. 1529.
Heusden (C. J. van),
Dutch writer in De Dageraad. Has written several
works, Thoughts
on a Coming More Universal Doctrine, by a Believer,
etc.
Hibbert
(Julian), Freethought philanthropist, b. 1801. During the
imprisonment of
Richard Carlile he was active in sustaining his
publications.
Learning that a distinguished political prisoner had
received a gift
of £1,000, he remarked that a Freethinking prisoner
should not want
equal friends, and gave Carlile a cheque for the same
amount. Julian
Hibbert spent nearly £1,000 in fitting up Carlile's
shop in Fleet
Street. He contributed "Theological Dialogues" to the
Republican, and
also contributed to the Poor Man's Guardian. Hibbert
set up a
private press and printed in uncial Greek the Orphic Hymns,
'27, and also
Plutarch and Theophrastus on Superstition, to which
he wrote a life
of Plutarch and appended valuable essays "on the
supposed
necessity of deceiving the vulgar"; "various definitions
of an important
word" [God], and a catalogue of the principal
modern works
against Atheism. He also commenced a Dictionary
of
Anti-Superstitionists, and Chronological Tables of British
Freethinkers.
He wrote a short life of Holbach, published by James
Watson, to
whom, and to Henry Hetherington, he left £500 each. Died
December 1834.
Hedin (Sven
Adolph), Swedish member of the "Andra Kammaren" [House
of Commons], b.
1834. Studied at Upsala and became philosophical
candidate, '61.
Edited the Aftonbladet, '74-76. Has written many
radical works.
Higgins
(Godfrey), English archæologist, b. Skellow Grange, near
Doncaster,
1771. Educated at Cambridge and studied for the bar,
but never
practised. Being the only son he inherited his father's
property,
married, and acted as magistrate, in which capacity he
reformed the
treatment of lunatics in York Asylum. His first work was
entitled Horæ
Sabbaticæ, 1813, a manual on the Sunday Question. In
'29 he
published An Apology for the Life and Character of Mohammed and
Celtic Druids,
which occasioned some stir on account of the exposure
of priestcraft.
He died 9 Aug. 1833, leaving behind a work on the
origin of
religions, to the study of which he devoted ten hours daily
for about
twenty years. The work was published in two volumes in 1826,
under the title
of "Anacalypsis, an attempt to draw aside the veil of
the Saitic
Isis; or an Inquiry into the Origin of Languages, Nations,
and
Religions."
Hillebrand
(Karl), cosmopolitan writer, b. 17 Sept. 1829, at
Giessen. His
father, Joseph Hillebrand, succeeded Hegel as professor
at Heidelberg.
Involved in the revolutionary movement in Germany,
Karl was
imprisoned in the fortress of Rastadt, whence he escaped to
France. He
taught at Strasbourg and Paris, where he became secretary
to Heine. On
the poet's death he removed to Bordeaux, where he became a
naturalised
Frenchman. He became professor of letters at Douay. During
the
Franco-Prussian war he was correspondent to the Times, and was
taken for a
Prussian spy. In 1871 he settled at Florence, where he
translated the
poems of Carducci. Hillebrand was a contributor to
the Fortnightly
Review, Nineteenth Century, Revue des deux Mondes,
North American
Review, etc. His best known work is on France and the
French in the
second half of the nineteenth century. Died at Florence,
18 Oct. 1884.
Hins (Eugène),
Belgian writer, Dr. of Philosophy, Professor at Royal
Athenæum,
Charleroi, b. St. Trond, 1842. As general secretary of the
International,
he edited L'Internationale, in which he laid stress
on
anti-religious teaching. He contributed to La Liberté, and was
one of the
prominent lecturers of the Societies Les Solidaires, and
La Libre-pensée
of Brussels. He has written La Russie dé voilée au
moyen de sa
littérature populaire, 1883, and other works.
Hippel (Theodor
Gottlieb von), German humoristic poet, b. Gerdauen,
Prussia, 31
Jan. 1741. He studied theology, but resigned it for law,
and became in
1780 burgomaster of Königsberg. His writings, which were
published
anonymously, betray his advanced opinions. Died Bromberg,
23 April, 1796.
Hittell (John
S.), American Freethinker, author of the Evidences
against
Christianity (New York, 1857): has also written A Plea for
Pantheism, A
New System of Phrenology, The Resources of California,
a History of
San Francisco, A Brief History of Culture (New York,
1875), and St.
Peter's Catechism (Geneva, 1883).
Hoadley
(George), American jurist, b. New Haven, Conn., 31 July,
1836. He
studied at Harvard, and in '47 was admitted to the bar,
and in '51 was
elected judge of the superior court of Cincinnati. He
afterwards
resigned his place and established a law firm. He was one
of the counsel
that successfully opposed compulsory Bible reading in
the public
schools.
Hobbes
(Thomas), English philosopher, b. Malmesbury, 5 April,
1588. In 1608
he became tutor to a son of the Earl of Devonshire,
with whom he
made the tour of Europe. At Pisa in 1628 he made the
acquaintance of
Galileo. In 1642 he printed his work De Cive. In 1650
appeared in
English his work on Human Nature, and in the following
year his famous
Leviathan. At the Restoration he received a pension,
but in 1666
Parliament, in a Bill against Atheism and profaneness,
passed a
censure on his writings, which much alarmed him. The latter
years of his
life were spent at the seat of the Duke of Devonshire,
Chatsworth,
where he died 4 Dec. 1679.
Hodgson
(William, M.D.), English Jacobin, translator of d'Holbach's
System of
Nature (1795). In 1794 he was confined in Newgate for two
years for
drinking to the success of the French Republic. In prison
he wrote The
Commonwealth of Reason.
Hoelderlin
(Johann Christian Friedrich), German pantheistic poet,
b. Laufen, 20
March, 1770. Entered as a theological student at
Tübingen, but
never took to the business. He wrote Hyperion, a
fine romance
(1797-99), and Lyric Poems, admired for their depth of
thought. Died
Tübingen, 7 June, 1843.
Hoijer
(Benjamin Carl Henrik), Swedish philosopher, b. Great Skedvi,
Delecarlia, 1
June, 1767. Was student at Upsala University '83,
and teacher of
philosophy '98. His promotion was hindered by his
liberal
opinions. By his personal influence and published treatises he
contributed
much to Swedish emancipation. In 1808 he became Professor
of Philosophy
at Upsala. Died 8 June, 1812.
Holbach (Paul
Heinrich Dietrich von) Baron, b. Heidelsheim
Jan. 1723.
Brought up at Paris where he spent most of his life. Rich
and generous he
was the patron of the Encyclopædists. Buffon, Diderot,
d'Alembert,
Helvetius, Rousseau, Grimm, Raynal, Marmontel, Condillac,
and other
authors often met at his table. Hume, Garrick, Franklin,
and Priestley
were also among his visitors. He translated from the
German several
works on chemistry and mineralogy, and from the English,
Mark Akenside's
Pleasures of the Imagination. He contributed many
articles to the
Encyclopédie. In 1765 he visited England, and from
this time was
untiring in his issue of Freethought works, usually put
out under
pseudonyms. Thus he wrote and had published at Amsterdam
Christianity
Unveiled, attributed to Boulanger. The Spirit of the
Clergy,
translated, from the English of Trenchard and Gordon, was
partly rewritten
by d'Holbach, 1767. His Sacred Contagion or Natural
History of
Superstition, was also wrongly attributed to Trenchard
and Gordon.
This work was condemned to be burnt by a decree of the
French
parliament, 8 Aug. 1770. D'Holbach also wrote and published
The History of
David, 1768, The Critical History of Jesus Christ,
Letters to
Eugenia, attributed to Freret, Portable Theology, attributed
to Bernier, an
Essay on Prejudices, attributed to M. Du M [arsais],
Religious
Cruelty, Hell Destroyed, and other works, said to be from
the English. He
also translated the Philosophical Letters of Toland,
and Collins's
Discourses on Prophecy, and attributed to the latter a
work with the
title The Spirit of Judaism. These works were mostly
conveyed to the
printer, M. Rey, at Amsterdam, by Naigeon, and the
secret of their
authorship was carefully preserved. Hence d'Holbach
escaped
persecution. In 1770 he published his principal work The
System of
Nature, or The Laws of the Physical and Moral World. This
text-book of atheistic
philosophy, in which d'Holbach was assisted
by Diderot,
professed to be the posthumous work of Mirabaud. It made
a great
sensation. Within two years he published a sort of summary
under the title
of Good Sense, attributed to the curé Meslier. In
1773 he wrote
on Natural Politics and the Social System. His last
important work
was Universal Morality; or the Duties of Man founded
upon Nature.
D'Holbach, whose personal good qualities were testified to
by many, was
depicted in Rousseau's Nouvelle Héloise as the benevolent
Atheist Wolmar.
Died 21 Jan. 1789.
Holcroft
(Thomas), English author, b. 10 Dec. 1745, was successively
a groom,
shoemaker, schoolmaster, actor and author. His comedies
"Duplicity,"
1781, and "The Road to Ruin," 1792, were very
successful. He
translated the Posthumous Works of Frederick the
Great, 1789.
For his active sympathy with the French Republicans he
was indicted
for high treason with Hardy and Horne Tooke in 1794,
but was
discharged without a trial. Died 23 March, 1809.
Holland (Frederic
May), American author, b. Boston, 2 May, 1836,
graduated at
Harvard in '49, and in '63 was ordained Unitarian minister
at Rockford,
Ill. Becoming broader in his views, he resigned, and has
since written
in the Truthseeker, the Freethinkers' Magazine, etc. His
principal work
is entitled The Rise of Intellectual Liberty, 1885.
Hollick (Dr.
Frederick), Socialist, b. Birmingham, 22 Dec. 1813. He was
educated at the
Mechanics' Institute of that town, and became one of
the Socialist
lecturers under Robert Owen. He held a public discussion
with J.
Brindley at Liverpool, in 1840, on "What is Christianity?" On
the failure of
Owenism he went to America, where some of his works
popularising
medical science have had a large circulation.
Hollis (John),
English sceptic, b. 1757. Author of Sober and Serious
Reasons for
Scepticism, 1796; An Apology for Disbelief in Revealed
Religion, 1799;
and Free Thoughts, 1812. Died at High Wycombe, Bucks
26 Nov. 1824.
Hollis, who came of an opulent dissenting family, was
distinguished
by his love of truth, his zeal in the cause of freedom,
and by his
beneficence.
Holmes (William
Vamplew), one of Carlile's brave shopmen who came up
from Leeds to
uphold the right of free publication. He was sentenced
to two years'
imprisonment, 1 March, '22, for selling blasphemous
and seditious
libels in An Address to the Reformers of Great Britain,
and when in
prison was told that "if hard labor was not expressed in
his sentence,
it was implied." On his release Holmes went to Sheffield
and commenced
the open sale of all the prohibited publications.
Holwell (John
Zephaniah), noted as one of the survivors of the Black
Hole of
Calcutta, b. Dublin, 7 Sept. 1711. He practised as a surgeon,
went to India
as a clerk, defended a fort at Calcutta against Surajah
Dowlah, was
imprisoned with one hundred and forty-five others in the
"Black
Hole," 20th June, 1756, of which he published a Narrative. He
succeeded Clive
as governor of Bengal. On returning to England
he published a
dissertation directed against belief in a special
providence, and
advocating the application of church endowments to
the exigencies
of the State (Bath, 1786). Died 5 Nov. 1798.
Holyoake
(Austin), English Freethinker, b. Birmingham, 27
Oct. 1826. His
mental emancipation came from hearing the lectures of
Robert Owen and
his disciples. He took part in the agitation for the
abolition of
the newspaper stamp--assisting when risk and danger had
to be met--and
he co-operated with his brother in the production of
the Reasoner
and other publications from '45 till '62. Soon after
this he printed
and sub-edited the National Reformer, in which
many of his
Freethought articles appeared. Among his pamphlets may
be mentioned
Heaven and Hell, Ludicrous Aspects of Christianity,
Thoughts on
Atheism, the Book of Esther, and Daniel the Dreamer. He
also composed a
Secular Burial Service. Austin Holyoake took pride
in the
character of Freethought, and was ever zealous in promoting
its welfare.
His amiable spirit endeared him to all who knew him. He
died 10 April,
1874, leaving behind thoughts written on his deathbed,
in which he
repudiated all belief in theology.
Holyoake
(George Jacob), b. Birmingham, 13 April 1817. Became
mathematical
teacher of the Mechanics' Institution. Influenced by Combe
and Owen he became
a Freethinker, and in '40 a Socialist missionary. In
'42, when
Southwell was imprisoned for writing in the Oracle of Reason,
Mr. Holyoake
took charge of that journal, and wrote The Spirit of
Bonner in the
Disciples of Jesus. He was soon arrested for a speech
at Cheltenham,
having said, in answer to a question, that he would put
the Deity on
half-pay. Tried Aug. '42, he was sentenced to six months
imprisonment,
of which he gave a full account in his Last Trial by
Jury for
Atheism in England. In Dec. '43 he edited with M. Q. Ryall
the Movement,
bearing the motto from Bentham, "Maximise morals,
minimise
religion." The same policy was pursued in The Reasoner,
which he edited
from 1846 till 1861. Among his many pamphlets we must
notice the
Logic of Death, '50, which went through numerous editions,
and was
included in his most important Freethought work, The Trial
of Theism. In
'49 he published a brief memoir of R. Carlile. In
'51 he first
used the term "Secularist," and in Oct. '52 the first
Secular
Conference was held at Manchester Mr. Holyoake presiding. In
Jan. '53 he
held a six nights discussion with the Rev. Brewin Grant,
and again in
Oct. '54. He purchased the business of James Watson,
and issued many
Freethought works, notably The Library of Reason--a
series, The
Cabinet of Reason, his own Secularism, The Philosophy of
the People,
etc. In '60 he was Secretary to the British Legion sent out
to Garibaldi.
Mr. Holyoake did much to remove the taxes upon knowledge,
and has devoted
much attention to Co-operation, having written a
history of the
movement and contributed to most of its journals.
Home (Henry),
Scottish judge, was b. 1696. His legal ability was
made known by
his publication of Remarkable Decisions of the Court of
Session, 1728.
In 1752 he was raised to the bench as Lord Kames. He
published
Essays on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion
(1751),
Elements of Criticism (1762), and Sketches of the History
of Man, in
which he proved himself in advance of his age. Died 27
Dec. 1782.
Hon, Le (Henri).
See Le Hon.
Hooker (Sir
Joseph Dalton), English naturalist, b. 1817. He
studied
medicine at Glasgow, graduating M.D '39. In '55 he
became
assistant-director of Kew Gardens, and from '65-85 sole
director.
Renowned as a botanist, he was the first eminent man of
science to
proclaim his adoption of Darwinism.
Hope (Thomas),
novelist and antiquarian, b. 1770. Famous for his
anonymous
Anastasius, or Memories of a Modern Greek, he also wrote an
original work
on The Origin and Prospects of Man '31. Died at London
3 Feb. 1831.
Houten (Samuel
van), Dutch Freethinker, b. Groningen. 17 Feb. 1837;
he studied law
and became a lawyer in that city. In '69 he was
chosen member
of the Dutch Parliament. Has published many writings on
political
economy. In '88 he wrote a book entitled Das Causalitätgesetz
(The Law of
Causality).
Houston
(George). Was the translator of d'Holbach's Ecce Homo, first
published in
Edinburgh in 1799, and sometimes ascribed to Joseph
Webb. A second
edition was issued in 1813. Houston was prosecuted and
was imprisoned
two years in Newgate, with a fine of £200. He afterwards
went to New
York, where he edited the Minerva (1822). In Jan. 1827,
he started The
Correspondence, which, we believe, was the first weekly
Freethought
journal published in America. It lasted till July 1828. He
also
republished Ecce Homo. Houston helped to establish in America a
"Free
Press Association" and a Society of Free Inquirers.
Hovelacque
(Abel), French scientist, b. Paris 14 Nov. 1843. He studied
law and made
part of the groupe of la Pensée Nouvelle, with Asseline,
Letourneau,
Lefevre, etc. He also studied anthropology under Broca
and published
many articles in the Revue d'Anthropologie. He founded
with
Letourneau, Thulié, Asseline, etc. The "Bibliothèque des sciences
contemporains"
and published therein La Linguistique. He also founded
with the same
the library of anthropological science and published in
collaboration
with G. Hervé a prècis of Anthropology and a study of
the Negroes of
Africa. He has also contributed to the Dictionary of
Anthropology.
For the "Bibliothèque Materialiste" he wrote a work on
Primitive man.
He has also published choice extracts from the works
of Voltaire,
Diderot and Rousseau, a grammar of the Zend language,
and a work on
the Avesta Zoroaster and Mazdaism. In '78 he was made a
member of the
municipal council of Paris, and in '81 was elected deputy
to the chamber
where he sits with the autonomist socialist group.
Howdon (John),
author of A Rational Investigation of the Principles
of Natural
Philosophy, Physical and Moral, printed at Haddington,
1840, in which
he attacks belief in the Bible.
Huber (Marie),
Swiss Deist, b. of Protestant parents, Geneva,
1694. In a work
on the System of Theologians, 1731, she opposed
the dogma of
eternal punishment. In '38 published Letters on the
Religion
essential to Man. This was translated into English in the
same year.
Other works show English reading. She translated selections
from the
Spectator. Died at Lyons, 13 June, 1753.
Hudail (Abul).
See Muhammad ibn Hudail (Al Allaf.)
Huet (Coenraad
Busken), Dutch writer, b. the Hague, 28 Dec. 1826. He
became minister
of the Walloon Church at Haarlem, but through his
Freethought
left the church in '63, and became editor of various
newspapers,
afterwards living in Paris. He wrote many works of literary
value, and
published Letters on the Bible, '57, etc. Died 1887.
Hugo (Victor
Marie), French poet and novelist, b. Besançon, 26
Feb. 1802. Was
first noted for his Odes, published in '21. His dramas
"Hernani,"
'30, and "Marion Delorme," '31, were highly successful. He
was admitted
into the French Academy in '41, and made a peer in
'45. He gave
his cordial adhesion to the Republic of '48, and was
elected to the
Assembly by the voters of Paris. He attacked Louis
Napoleon, and
after the coup d'état was proscribed. He first went to
Brussels, where
he published Napoleon the Little, a biting satire. He
afterwards
settled at Guernsey, where he remained until the fall of
the Empire,
producing The Legend of the Ages, '59, Les Miserables, '62,
Toilers of the
Sea, '69, and other works. After his return to Paris he
produced a new
series of the Legend of the Ages, The Pope, Religions
and Religion,
Torquemada, and other poems. He died 22 May, 1885,
and it being
decided he should have a national funeral, the Pantheon
was secularised
for that purpose, the cross being removed. Since his
death a poem
entitled The End of Satan has been published.
Hugues
(Clovis), French Socialist, poet, and deputy, b. Menerbes,
3 Nov. 1850. In
youth he desired to become a priest, but under the
influence of
Hugo left the black business. In '71 he became head
of the
Communist movement at Marseilles. He was sentenced to three
years'
imprisonment. In '81 he was elected deputy, and sits on the
extreme left.
Humboldt
(Friedrich Heinrich Alexander von), illustrious German
naturalist and
traveller, b. Berlin, 14 Sept. 1769. He studied under
Heyne and
Blumenbach, travelled in Holland, France and England
with George
Forster, the naturalist, and became director-general
of mines. In
1799 he set out to explore South America and Mexico,
and in 1804
returned with a rich collection of animals, plants and
minerals.
Humboldt became a resident of Paris, where he enjoyed
the friendship
of Lalande, Delambre, Arago, and all the living
distinguished
French scientists. After numerous important contributions
to scientific
knowledge, at the age of seventy-four he composed his
celebrated
Cosmos, the first volume of which appeared in '45 and the
fourth in '58.
To Varnhagen von Ense he wrote in 1841: "Bruno Bauer
has found me
pre-adamatically converted. Many years ago I wrote,
'Toutes les
réligions positives offrent trois parties distinctes;
un traité de
moeurs partout le même et très pur, un rève géologique,
et un mythe ou
petit roman historique; le dernier élément obtient
le plus
d'importance.'" Later on he says that Strauss disposes of
"the
Christian myths." Humboldt was an unwearied student of science,
paying no
attention to religion, and opposed his brother in regard to
his essay On the
Province of the Historian, because he considered it
to acknowledge
the belief in the divine government of the world, which
seemed to him
as complete a delusion as the hypothesis of a principle
of life. He
died in Berlin, 6 May, 1859, in his ninetieth year.
Humboldt (Karl
Wilhelm von), Prussian statesman and philosopher,
b. Potsdam, 22
June, 1767. He was educated by Campe. Went to Paris in
1789, and
hailed the revolution with enthusiasm. In '92 he published
Ideas on the
Organization of the State. He became a friend of Schiller
and Goethe, and
in 1809 was Minister of Public Instruction. He took
part in
founding the University of Berlin. He represented Prussia at
the Congress of
Vienna, '14. He advocated a liberal constitution, but
finding the
King averse, retired at the end of '19, and devoted himself
to the study of
comparative philology. He said there were three things
he could not
comprehend--orthodox piety, romantic love, and music. He
died 8 April,
1835. His works were collected and edited by his brother.
Hume (David),
philosopher and historian, b. Edinburgh, 26 April,
1711. In 1735
he went to France to study, and there wrote his Treatise
on Human
Nature, published in 1739. This work then excited no interest
friendly or
hostile. Hume's Essays Moral and Political appeared in
1742, and in
1752 his Inquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals which
of all his
writings he considered the best. In 1755 he published his
Natural History
of Religion, which was furiously attacked by Warburton
in an anonymous
tract. In 1754 he published the first volume of his
History of
England, which he did not complete till 1761. He became
secretary to
the Earl of Hertford, ambassador at Paris, where he was
cordially
welcomed by the philosophers. He returned in 1766, bringing
Rousseau with
him. Hume became Under Secretary of State in 1767,
and in 1769
retired to Edinburgh, where he died 25 Aug. 1776. After
his death his
Dialogues on Natural Religion were published, and also
some
unpublished essays on Suicide, the Immortality of the Soul,
etc. Hume's
last days were singularly cheerful. His friend, the famous
Dr. Adam Smith,
considered him "as approaching as nearly to the idea
of a perfectly
wise and virtuous man as perhaps the nature of human
frailty will
permit."
Hunt (James),
Ph.D., physiologist, b. 1833, was the founder of the
Anthropological
Society, of which he was the first president, '63. He
was the author
of the Negro's Place in Nature, a work on Stammering,
etc. Died 28
Aug. 1869.
Hunt (James
Henry Leigh), poet, essayist and critic, b. Southgate,
Middlesex, 19
Oct. 1784. was educated with Lamb and Coleridge at
Christ's
Hospital, London. He joined his brother John in editing
first the
Sunday News, 1805, and then the Examiner, 1808. They were
condemned to
pay a fine, each of £500, and to be imprisoned for
two years,
1812-14, for a satirical article, in which the prince
regent was
called an "Adonis of fifty." This imprisonment procured
him the
friendship of Shelley and Byron, with whom, after editing
the Indicator
he was associated in editing the Liberal. He wrote many
choice books of
poems and criticisms, and in his Religion of the Heart,
'53, repudiates
orthodoxy. Died 28 Aug. 1859.
Hutten (Ulrich
von), German poet and reformer, b. of noble family
Steckelberg,
Hesse Cassel, 22 April 1488. He was sent to Fulda
to become a
monk, but fled in 1504 to Erfurt, where he studied
humaniora.
After some wild adventures he went to Wittenberg in 1510,
and Vienna
1512, and also studied at Pavia and Bologna. He returned to
Germany in 1517
as a common soldier in the army of Maximilian. His
great object
was to free his country from sacerdotalism, and
most of his
writings are satires against the Pope, monks and
clergy.
Persecution drove him to Switzerland, but the Council of
Zurich drove
him out of their territory and he died on the isle of
Ufnau, Lake
Zürich, 29 Aug. 1523.
Hutton (James),
Scotch geologist and philosopher, b. at Edinburgh 3
June, 1736. He
graduated as M.D. at Leyden in 1749, and investigated
the strata of
the north of Scotland. He published a dissertation
on Light, Heat,
and Fire, and in his Theory of the World, 1795,
attributes
geological phenomena to the action of fire. He also wrote
a work entitled
An Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge,
the opinions of
which, says Chalmers, "abound in sceptical boldness
and
philosophical infidelity." Died 26 March 1797.
Huxley (Thomas
Henry), LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., b. Ealing, 4 May, 1825. He
studied
medicine, and in '46 took M.R.C.S., and was appointed assistant
naval surgeon.
His cruises afforded opportunities for his studies of
natural
history. In '51 he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society, and
in '54 was made
Professor at the School of Mines. In '60 he lectured on
"The
Relation of Man to the Lower Animals," and afterwards published
Evidence as to
Man's Place in Nature (1863). In addition to numerous
scientific
works, Professor Huxley has written numerous forcible
articles,
addresses, etc., collected in Lay Sermons, '70; Critiques
and Addresses,
'73; and American Addresses, '79. A vigorous writer,
his Hume in the
"English Men of Letters" series is a model of clear
exposition. In
his controversies with Mr. Gladstone, in his articles
on the
Evolution of Theology, and in his recent polemic with the
Rev. Mr. Wace
in the Nineteenth Century, Professor Huxley shows all
his freshness,
and proves himself as ready in demolishing theological
fictions as in
demonstrating scientific facts. He states as his own
life aims
"The popularising of science and untiring opposition to
that
ecclesiastical spirit, that clericalism, which in England,
as everywhere
else, and to whatever denomination it may belong,
is the deadly
enemy of science."
Hypatia, Pagan
philosopher and martyr, b. Alexandria early in
the second half
of the fourth century. She became a distinguished
lecturer and
head of the Neo-Platonic school (c. 400). The charms of
her eloquence
brought many disciples. By a Christian mob, incited by
St. Cyril, she
was in Lent 415 torn from her chariot, stripped naked,
cut with
oyster-shells and finally burnt piecemeal. This true story
of Christian
persecution has been disguised into a legend related of
St. Catherine
in the Roman breviary (Nov. 25).
Ibn Bajjat. See
Avenpace.
Ibn Massara.
See Massara in Supplement.
Ibn Rushd. See
Averroes.
Ibn Sabîn. See
Sabin.
Ibn Sina. See
Avicenna.
Ibn Tofail. See
Abu Bakr.
Ibsen (Henrik),
an eminent Norwegian dramatist and poet, b. Skien,
20 March, 1828.
At first he studied medicine, but he turned his
attention to
literature. In '52, through the influence of Ole Bull,
he became
director of the theatre at Bergen, for which he wrote a
great deal.
From '57 to '63 he directed the theatre at Christiania. In
the following
year he went to Rome. The Storthing accorded him an
annual pension
for his services to literature. His dramas, Brand,
(Peer Gynt),
Kejser og Galilær (Cæsar [Julian] and the Galilean),
Nora, and
Samfundets Stotler (the Pillars of Society), and Ghosts
exhibit his
unconventional spirit. Ibsen is an open unbeliever in
Christianity.
He looks forward to social regeneration through liberty,
individuality,
and education without superstition.
Ilive (Jacob),
English printer and letter founder, b. Bristol about
1710. He
published a pretended translation of the Book of Jasher, 1751,
and some other
curious works. He was prosecuted for blasphemy in Some
Modest Remarks
on the late Bishop Sherlock's Sermons, and sentenced to
two years'
imprisonment, 15 June, 1756-10 June, 1758. He was confined
in the
Clerkenwell House of Correction and published some pamphlets
exposing the
bad condition of the prison and suggesting means for
its
improvement. He died in 1768.
Imray (I. W.),
author, b. 1802. Wrote in Carlile's Republican and Lion,
and published
"Altamont," an atheistic drama, in 1828.
Ingersoll
(Robert Green), American orator, b. Dresden, New York,
11 Aug. 1833.
His father was a Congregationalist clergyman. He
studied law,
and opened an office in Shawneetown, Illinois. In '62 he
became colonel
of the 11th Illinois Cavalry, and served in the war,
being taken
prisoner. In '66 he was appointed attorney-general for
Illinois. At
the National Republican Convention, '76, he proposed
Blaine for
President in a speech that attracted much attention. In
'77 he refused
the post of Minister to Germany. He has conducted
many important cases,
and defended C. B. Reynolds when tried for
blasphemy in
'86. Col. Ingersoll is the most popular speaker in
America.
Eloquence, humor, and pathos are alike at his command. He is
well known by
his books, pamphlets, and speeches directed against
Christianity.
He had published the Gods, Ghosts, Some Mistakes
of Moses, and a
collection of his Lectures, '83, and Prose Poems
and Extracts,
'84. Most of his lectures have been republished in
England. We
mention What must I do to be Saved? Hell, The Dying Creed,
Myth and
Miracle, Do I Blaspheme? Real Blasphemy. In the pages of the
North American
Review Col. Ingersoll has defended Freethought against
Judge Black,
the Rev. H. Field, Mr. Gladstone, and Cardinal Manning.
Inman (Thomas),
B.A., physician and archæologist, b. 1820. Educated
at London
University, he settled at Liverpool, being connected with
the well-known
shipping family of that port. He is chiefly known by
his work on
Ancient Faiths Embodied in Ancient Names, in which he
deals with the
evidences of phallic worship amongst Jews and other
nations. It was
first published in '69. A second edition appeared in
'73. He also
wrote Ancient Pagan and Modern Christian Symbolism Exposed
and Explained,
'69, and a controversial Freethought work, entitled
Ancient Faiths
and Modern, published at New York '76. Dr. Inman was
for some time
President of the Liverpool Literary and Philosophical
Society, and
was physician to the Royal Infirmary of that city. His
professional
life was one of untiring industry. He wrote several
medical works,
including two volumes on the Preservation and
Restoration of
Health. Died at Clifton, 3 May. 1876.
Iron (Ralph),
pseudonym of Olive Schreiner, q.v.
Isnard (Felix),
French physician, b. Grasse 1829. Author of a work
on Spiritualism
and Materialism, 1879.
Isnard
(Maximin), Girondin revolutionist, b. Grasse 16 Feb. 1751. He
was made a
member of the Assembly, in which he declared, "The Law,
behold my God.
I know no other." He voted for the death of the
King, and was
nominated president of the Convention. On the fall of
the Girondins
he made his escape, and reappeared after the fall of
Robespierre. In
1796 he was one of the Council of Five Hundred. Died
1830.
Isoard (Eric
Michel Antoine), French writer, b. Paris, 1826. Was naval
officer in '48
but arrested as socialist in '49. In '70 he was made
sous-prefet of
Cambrai and wrote Guerre aux Jésuites.
Isoard Delisle
(Jean Baptiste Claude), called also Delisle de Sales,
French man of
letters, b. Lyons 1743. When young he entered the
Congregation of
the Oratory, but left theology for literature. In 1769
he published
the Philosophy of Nature, which in 1771 was discovered to
be irreligious,
and he was condemned to perpetual banishment. While in
prison he was
visited by many of the philosophers, and a subscription
was opened for
him, to which Voltaire gave five hundred francs. He
went to the
court of Frederick the Great, and subsequently published
many works of
little importance. Died at Paris 22 Sept. 1816.
Jacob (Andre
Alexandre). See Erdan (A.)
Jacobson
(Augustus), American, author of Why I do not Believe,
Chicago 1881,
and The Bible Inquirer.
"Jacobus
(Dom)" Pseudonym of Potvin (Charles) q.v.
Jacoby
(Leopold) German author of The Idea of Development. 2
vols. Berlin
1874-76.
Jacolliot
(Louis), French orientalist, b. Saint Etienne, 1806. Brought
up to the law,
in '43 he was made judge at Pondichery. He first aroused
attention by
his work, The Bible in India, '70. He also has written
on Genesis of
Humanity, '76. The Religions Legislators, Moses, Manu
and Muhammad,
'80, and The Natural and Social History of Humanity,
'84, and
several works of travel.
Jantet (Charles
and Hector), two doctors of Lyons, b. the first
in 1826, the
second in '28, have published together able Aperçus
Philosophiques
on Rènan's Life of Jesus, '64, and Doctrine Medicale
Matérialiste,
1866.
Jaucourt (Louis
de), Chevalier, French scholar and member of the
Royal Society
of London and of the academies of Berlin and Stockholm,
b. Paris 27
Sept. 1704. He studied at Geneva, Cambridge, and Leyden,
furnished the
Encyclopédie with many articles, and conducted the
Bibliothèque
Raisonnée. Died at Compiègne, 3 Feb. 1779.
Jefferies
(Richard), English writer, b. 1848, famous for his
descriptions of
nature in The Gamekeeper at Home, Wild Life in a
Southern
Country, etc. In his autobiographical Story of My Heart
(1883) Mr.
Jefferies shows himself a thorough Freethinker. Died
Goring-on-Thames,
14 Aug. 1887.
Jefferson
(Thomas), American statesman, b. Shadwell, Virginia, 2 April
1743. He
studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1767. He became
a member of the
House of Burgesses, 1769-75. In 1774 he published
his Summary
Views of the Rights of British-Americans. He drafted
and reported to
Congress the "Declaration of Independence" which
was unanimously
adopted, 4 July 1766. He was Governor of Virginia
from 1719 to
1781, and originated a system of education in the
State. He was
Ambassador to Paris from 1785-89, secretary of state
from 1789-93,
vice-president 1791-1801 and third president of the
United States
1801-9. In '19 he founded the University of Virginia, of
which he was
rector till his death, 4 July 1826. Dr. J. Thomas in his
Dictionary of
Biography says "In religion he was what is denominated a
freethinker."
He spoke in old age of "the hocus-pocus phantom of God,
which like
another Cerberus had one body and three heads." See his
life by J.
Parton.
Johnson
(Richard Mentor), Colonel, American soldier and statesman,
b. Bryant's
Station, Kentucky, 17 Oct. 1781. Was educated at Lexington,
studied law,
and practiced with success. Became member of the Kentucky
Legislature in
1805, and raised a regiment of cavalry '12. Fought
with
distinction against British and Indians. Was member of Congress
from 1807-19,
and from '29-37; a United States Senator from '19-29,
and
Vice-President of the United States, '37-40. Is remembered by his
report against
the suspension of Sunday mails and his speeches in favor
of rights of
conscience. Died at Frankfort, Kentucky, 19 Nov. 1850.
Johnson
(Samuel), American author, b. Salem, Massachusetts, 10
Oct. 1822. He
was educated at Harvard, and became pastor of a "Free
Church" at
Lynn in '53. He never attached himself to any denomination,
although in
some points his views were like those of the Unitarians
and
Universalists. About '46 he published, in conjunction with
S. Longfellow,
brother of the poet, Hymns of the Spirit, Oriental
Religions in
relation to Universal Religion, of which the volume
on India
appeared in '72, China '77, and Persia '84. Died Andover,
19 Feb. 1882.
Jones (Ernest
Charles), barrister and political orator, b. Berlin,
25 Jan. 1819.
His father was in the service of the King of Hanover,
who became his
godfather. Called to the bar in '44 in the following
year he joined
the Chartist movement, editing the People's Paper, Notes
to the People,
and other Chartist periodicals. In '48 he was tried for
making a
seditious speech, and condemned to two years' imprisonment,
during which he
wrote Beldagon Church and other poems. He stood for
Halifax in '47,
and Nottingham in '53 and '57, without success. He
was much
esteemed by the working classes in Manchester, where he died
26 Jan. 1869.
Jones (John
Gale), Political orator, b. 1771. At the time of the French
Revolution he
became a leading member of the London Corresponding
Society.
Arrested at Birmingham for sedition, he obtained a verdict of
acquittal. He
was subsequently committed to Newgate in Feb. 1810, for
impugning the
proceedings of the House of Commons, and there remained
till his
liberation was effected by the prorogation of Parliament,
June 21. On 26
Dec. '11 he was again convicted for "a seditious and
blasphemous
libel." He was a resolute advocate of the rights of free
publication
during the trials of Carlile and his shopmen. Died Somers
Town, 4 April,
1838.
Jones (Lloyd),
Socialist, b. of Catholic parents at Brandon, co. Cork,
Ireland, in
March, 1811. In '27 he came over to Manchester, and
in '32 joined
the followers of Robert Owen. He became "a social
missionary,"
and had numerous debates with ministers, notably one on
"The
Influence of Christianity" with J. Barker, then a Methodist, at
Manchester, in
'39. Lloyd Jones was an active supporter of co-operation
and
trades-unionism, and frequently acted as arbitrator in disputes
between masters
and men. He contributed to the New Moral World, Spirit
of the Age,
Glasgow Sentinel, Leeds Express, North British Daily Mail,
Newcastle
Chronicle, and Co-operative News. Died at Stockwell, 22 May,
1886, leaving
behind a Life of Robert Owen.
Joseph II.,
Emperor of Germany, son of Francis I. and Maria Theresa,
b. Vienna 13
March 1741. In 1764 he was elected king of the Romans, and
in the
following year succeeded to the throne of Germany. He wrought
many reforms,
suppressed the Jesuits 1773, travelled in France as Count
Falkenstein,
saw d'Alembert but did not visit Voltaire. He abolished
serfdom,
allowed liberty of conscience, suppressed several convents,
regulated
others, abridged the power of the pope and the clergy,
and mitigated
the condition of the Jews. Carlyle says "a mighty
reformer he had
been, the greatest of his day. Austria gazed on him,
its admiration
not unmixed with terror. He rushed incessantly about,
hardy as a
Charles Twelfth; slept on his bearskin on the floor of any
inn or
hut;--flew at the throat of every absurdity, however broad
and based or
dangerously armed. 'Disappear I say.' A most prompt,
severe, and yet
beneficent and charitable kind of man. Immensely
ambitious, that
must be said withal. A great admirer of Friedrich;
bent to imitate
him with profit. 'Very clever indeed' says Friedrich,
'but has the
fault (a terribly grave one!) of generally taking the
second step
without having taken the first.'" Died Vienna 20 Feb. 1790.
Jouy (Victor
Joseph Etienne de), French author b. Jouy near Versailles
1764. He served
as soldier in India and afterwards in the wars of
the Republic. A
disciple of Voltaire to whom he erected a temple,
he was a
prolific writer, his plays being much esteemed in his own
day. Died 4
Sept. 1846.
Julianus
(Flavius Claudius), Roman Emperor, b. Constantinople 17
Nov. 331. In
the massacre of his family by the sons of Constantine
he escaped. He
was educated in the tenets of Christianity but
returned to an
eclectic Paganism. In 354 he was declared Cæsar. He
made successful
campaigns against the Germans who had overrun Gaul
and in 361 was
made Emperor. He proclaimed liberty of conscience
and sought to
uproot the Christian superstition by his writings, of
which only
fragments remain. As Emperor he exhibited great talent,
tact, industry,
and skill. He was one of the most gifted and learned
of the Roman
Emperors, and his short reign (Dec. 361--26 June, 363),
comprehended
the plans of a life-long administration. He died while
seeking to
repel a Persian invasion, and his death was followed by
the triumph of
Christianity and the long night of the dark ages.
Junghuhn (Franz
Wilhelm), traveller and naturalist, b. Mansfeld,
Prussia 29 Oct
1812. His father was a barber and surgeon. Franz
studied at
Halle and Berlin. He distinguished himself by love for
botany and
geology. In a duel with another student he killed him and
was sentenced
to imprisonment at Ehrenbreitster for 20 years. There
he simulated
madness and was removed to the asylum at Coblentz,
whence he
escaped to Algiers. In '34 he joined the Dutch Army in the
Malay
Archipelago. He travelled through the island of Java making
a botanical and
geological survey. In '54 he published his Licht
en
Schaduwbeelden uit de binnenlanden van Java (Light and Shadow
pictures from
the interior of Java), which contains his ideas of God,
religion and
science, together with sketches of nature and of the
manners of the
inhabitants. This book aroused much indignation from
the pious, but
also much agreement among freethinkers, and led to
the
establishment of De Dageraad (The Daybreak,) the organ of the
Dutch
Freethinkers Union. Junghuhn afterwards returned to Java and
died 21 April,
'64 at Lemberg, Preanges, Regentsch. His Light and
Shadow pictures
have been several times reprinted.
Kalisch (Moritz
Marcus), Ph.D., b. of Jewish parents in Pomerania,
16 May, 1828.
Educated at the University of Berlin, where he
studied under
Vatke and others. Early in '49 he came to England as a
political
refugee, and found employment as tutor to the Rothschild
family. His
critical Commentary on the Pentateuch commenced with a
volume on
Exodus, '55, Genesis '58, Leviticus in two vols. in '67
and '72
respectively. His rational criticism anticipated the school
of Wellhausen.
He published Bible Studies on Balaam and Jonah '77,
and discussions
on philosophy and religion in a very able and learned
work entitled
Path and Goal, '80. Kalisch also contributed to Scott's
series of
Freethought tracts. Died at Baslow, Derbyshire, 23 Aug. 1885.
Kames (Lord).
See Home (Henry).
Kant
(Immanuel), German critical philosopher, b. Königsberg, 22
April, 1724. He
became professor of mathematics in 1770. In 1781 he
published his
great work, The Critick of Pure Reason, which denied
all knowledge
of the "Thing itself," and overthrew the dogmatism of
earlier
metaphysics. In 1792 the philosopher fell under the royal
censorship for
his Religion within the Limits of Pure Reason. Kant
effected a
complete revolution in philosophy, and his immediate
influence is
not yet exhausted. Died at Königsberg, 12 Feb. 1804.
Kapila. One of
the earliest Hindu thinkers. His system is known as
the Atheistic
philosophy. It is expounded in the Sankhya Karika, an
important relic
of bold rationalistic Indian thought. His aphorisms
have been
translated by J. R. Ballantyne.
Karneades. See
Carneades.
Keeler (Bronson
C.) American author of an able Short History of the
Bible, being a
popular account of the formation and development of
the canon,
published at Chicago 1881.
Keim (Karl
Theodor), German rationalist, b. Stuttgart,
17 Dec. 1825.
Was educated at Tübingen, and became professor of
theology at
Zürich. Is chiefly known by his History of Jesus of Nazara
('67-'72). He
also wrote a striking work on Primitive Christianity
('78), and
endeavored to reproduce the lost work of Celsus. His
rationalism hindered
his promotion, and he was an invalid most of
his days. Died
at Giessen, where he was professor, 17 Nov. 1878.
Keith (George),
Lord Marshall, Scotch soldier, b. Kincardine 1685,
was appointed
by Queen Anne captain of Guard. His property being
confiscated for
aiding the Pretender, he went to the Continent, and
like his
brother, was in high favor with Frederick the Great. Died
Berlin, 25 May,
1778.
Keith (James
Francis Edward), eminent military commander, b. Inverugie,
Scotland, 11
June, 1696. Joined the army of the Pretender and was
wounded at
Sheriffmuir, 1715. He afterwards served with distinction
in Spain and in
Russia, where he rose to high favor under the
Empress
Elizabeth. In 1747 he took service with Frederick the Great
as
field-marshal, and became Governor of Berlin. Carlyle calls him
"a very
clear-eyed, sound observer of men and things. Frederick, the
more he knows
him, likes him the better." From their correspondence
it is evident
Keith shared the sceptical opinions of Frederick. After
brilliant
exploits in the seven years' war at Prague, Rossbach, and
Olmutz, Marshal
Keith fell in the battle of Hochkirch, 14 Oct. 1758.
Kenrick
(William), LL.D., English author, b. near Watford, Herts,
about 1720. In
1751 he published, at Dublin, under the pen-name of
Ontologos, an
essay to prove that the soul is not immortal. His first
poetic
production was a volume of Epistles, Philosophical and Moral
(1759),
addressed to Lorenzo; an avowed defence of scepticism. In
1775 he
commenced the London Review, and the following year attacked
Soame Jenyns's
work on Christianity. He translated some of the works
of Buffon,
Rousseau, and Voltaire. Died 10 June 1779.
Kerr (Michael
Crawford) American statesman, b. Titusville, Western
Pennsylvania,
15 March 1827. He was member of the Indiana Legislature
'56, and
elected to Congress in '74 and endeavoured to revise the
tariff in the
direction of free-trade. Died Rockbridge, Virginia,
19 Aug. 1876, a
confirmed Freethinker and Materialist.
Ket, Kett, or
Knight (Francis), of Norfolk, a relative of the
rebellious
tanner. He was of Windham and was an M.A. He was prosecuted
for heresy and
burnt in the castle ditch, Norwich, 14 Jan. 1588. Stowe
says he was
burnt for "divers detestable opinions against Christ
our
Saviour."
Khayyam (Omar)
or Umar Khaiyam, Persian astronomer, poet, b. Naishapur
Khorassan, in
the second half of the eleventh century, and was
distinguished
by his reformation of the calendar as well as by his
verses
(Rubiyat), which E. Fitzgerald has so finely rendered in
English. He
alarmed his contemporaries and made himself obnoxious to
the Sufis. Died
about 1123. Omar laughed at the prophets and priests,
and told men to
be happy instead of worrying themselves about God and
the Hereafter.
He makes his soul say, "I myself am Heaven and Hell."
Kielland
(Alexander Lange), Norwegian novelist, b. Stavanger, 18
Feb. 1849. He
studied law at Christiania, but never practised. His
stories,
Workpeople, Skipper Worse, Poison, and Snow exhibit his
bold opinions.
Kleanthes. See
Cleanthes.
Klinger
(Friedrich Maximilian von), German writer, b. Frankfort, 19
Feb. 1753. Went
to Russia in 1780, and became reader to the Grand
Duke Paul.
Published poems, dramas, and romances, exhibiting the
revolt of
nature against conventionality. Goethe called him "a true
apostle of the
Gospel of nature." Died at Petersburg, 25 Feb. 1831.
Kneeland
(Abner), American writer, b. Gardner, Mass., 7 April, 1774,
became a
Baptist and afterwards a Universalist minister. He invented
a new system of
orthography, published a translation of the New
Testament,
1823, The Deist (2 Vols.), '22, edited the Olive Branch
and the
Christian Inquirer. He wrote The Fourth Epistle of Peter,
'29, and a
Review of the Evidences of Christianity, being a series
of lectures
delivered in New York in '29. In that year he removed to
Boston, and in
April '31 commenced the Boston Investigator, the oldest
Freethought
journal. In '33 he was indicted and tried for blasphemy
for saying that
he "did not believe in the God which Universalists
did." He
was sentenced 21 Jan. '34, to two months' imprisonment and
fine of five
hundred dollars. The verdict was confirmed in the Courts
of Appeal in
'36, and he received two months' imprisonment. Kneeland
was a
Pantheist. He took Frances Wright as an associate editor, and
soon after left
the Boston Investigator in the hands of P. Mendum and
Seaver, and
retired to a farm at Salubria, where he died 27 August,
1844. His
edition, with notes, of Voltaire's Philosophical Dictionary,
was published
in two volumes in 1852.
Knoblauch (Karl
von), German author, b. Dillenburg, 3 Nov. 1757. He
was a friend of
Mauvillon and published several works directed against
supernaturalism
and superstition. Died at Bernburg, 6 Sept. 1794.
Knowlton
(Charles) Dr., American physician and author, b. Templeton,
Mass., 10 May,
1800. He published the Fruits of Philosophy, for which
he was
imprisoned in '32. He was a frequent correspondent of the Boston
Investigator,
and held a discussion on the Bible and Christianity with
the Rev. Mr. Thacher
of Harley. About '29 he published The Elements
of Modern
Materialism. Died in Winchester, Mass., 20 Feb. 1850.
Knutzen
(Matthias), b. Oldensworth, in Holstein, 1645. He early lost
his parents,
and was brought to an uncle at Königsberg, where he
studied
philosophy. He took to the adventurous life of a wandering
scholar and
propagated his principles in many places. In 1674 he
preached
Atheism publicly at Jena, in Germany, and had followers who
were called
"Gewissener," from their acknowledging no other authority
but conscience.
It is said there were seven hundred in Jena alone. What
became of him
and them is unknown. A letter dated from Rome gives his
principles. He
denied the existence of either God or Devil, deemed
churches and
priests useless, and held that there is no life beyond
the present,
for which conscience is a sufficient guide, taking the
place of the
Bible, which contains great contradictions. He also
wrote two
dialogues.
Koerbagh
(Adriaan), Dutch martyr, b. Amsterdam, 1632 or 1633. He became
a doctor of law
and medicine. In 1668 he published A Flower Garden
of all
Loveliness, a dictionary of definitions in which he gave bold
explanations.
The work was rigidly suppressed, and the writer fled
to Culemborg.
There he translated a book De Trinitate, and began a
work entitled A
Light Shining in Dark Places, to illuminate the chief
things of
theology and religion by Vrederijk Waarmond, inquisitor of
truth. Betrayed
for a sum of money, Koerbagh was tried for blasphemy,
heavily fined
and sentenced to be imprisoned for ten years, to be
followed by ten
years banishment. He died in prison, Oct. 1669.
Kolb (Georg
Friedrich), German statistician and author, b. Spires 14
Sept. 1808,
author of an able History of Culture, 1869-70. Died at
Munich 15 May,
1884.
Koornhert
(Theodore). See Coornhert (Dirk Volkertszoon.)
Korn (Selig),
learned German Orientalist of Jewish birth, b. Prague,
26 April, 1804.
A convert to Freethought, under the name of "F. Nork,"
he wrote many
works on mythology which may still be consulted with
profit. A list
is given in Fuerst's Bibliotheca Judaica. We mention
Christmas and
Easter Explained by Oriental Sun Worship, Leipsic, '36;
Brahmins and
Rabbins, Weissen, '36; The Prophet Elijah as a Sun Myth,
'37; The Gods
of the Syrians, '42; Biblical Mythology of the Old and
New Testament,
2 vols. Stuttgart, '42-'43. Died at Teplitz, Bohemia,
16 Oct. 1850.
Krause (Ernst
H. Ludwig), German scientific writer, b. Zielenzig
22 Nov. 1839.
He studied science and contributed to the Vossische
Zeitung and
Gartenlaube. In '63 he published, under the pen-name of
"Carus
Sterne," a work on The Natural History of Ghosts, and in
'76 a work on
Growth and Decay, a history of evolution. In '77 he
established
with Hæckel, Dr. Otto Caspari, and Professor Gustav Jaeger,
the monthly
magazine Kosmos, devoted to the spread of Darwinism. This
he conducted
till '82. In Kosmos appeared the germ of his little book
on Erasmus
Darwin, '79, to which Charles Darwin wrote a preliminary
notice. As
"Carus Sterne" he has also written essays entitled Prattle
from Paradise,
The Crown of Creation, '84, and an illustrated work
in parts on
Ancient and Modern Ideas of the World, '87, etc.
Krekel
(Arnold), American judge, b. Langenfield, Prussia 14 March,
1815. Went with
parents to America in '32 and settled in Missouri. In
'42 he was
elected Justice of the Peace and afterwards county
attorney. In
'52 he was elected to the Missouri State Legislature. He
served in the
civil war being elected colonel, was president of
the
constitutional convention of '65 and signed the ordinance of
emancipation by
which the slaves of Missouri were set free. He was
appointed judge
by President Lincoln 9 March, '65. A pronounced
Agnostic, when
he realized he was about to die he requested his wife
not to wear mourning,
saying that death was as natural as birth. Died
at Kansas 14
July, 1888.
Krekel (Mattie
H. Hulett), b. of freethinking parents, Elkhart Indiana
13 April, 1840.
Educated at Rockford, Illinois, in her 16th year became
a teacher.
Married Judge Krekel, after whose death, she devoted her
services to the
Freethought platform.
Kropotkin (Petr
Aleksyeevich) Prince, Russian anarchist, b. Moscow
9 Dec 1842.
After studying at the Royal College of Pages he went to
Siberia for
five years to pursue geological researches. In '71 he went
to Belgium and
Switzerland and joined the International. Arrested
in Russia, he
was condemned to three years imprisonment, escaped
'76 and came to
England. In '79 he founded at Geneva, Le Révolté was
expelled.
Accused in France in '83 of complicity in the outrage at
Lyons, he was
condemned to five years imprisonment, but was released in
'86, since
which he has lived in England. A brother who translated
Herbert
Spencer's "Biology" into Russian, died in Siberia in the
autumn of 1886.
Laas (Ernst)
German writer, b. Furstenwalde, 16 June, 1837. He has
written three
volumes on Idealism and Positivism, 1879-'84, and also
on Kant's Place
in the History of the Conflict between Faith and
Science,
Berlin, 1882. He was professor of philosophy at Strassburg,
where he died
25 July, 1885.
Labanca
(Baldassarre), professor of moral philosophy in the University
of Pisa, b.
Agnone, 1829. He took part in the national movement of
'48, and in '51
was imprisoned and afterwards expelled from Naples. He
has written on
progress in philosophy and also a study on primitive
Christianity,
dedicated to Giordano Bruno, the martyr of Freethought,
'86.
Lachatre
(Maurice), French writer, b. Issoudun 1814, edits a "Library
of
Progress," in which has appeared his own History of the Inquisition,
and History of
the Popes, '83.
Lacroix
(Sigismund), the pen name of Sigismund Julien Adolph
Krzyzanowski,
b. Warsaw 26 May, 1845. His father was a refugee. He
wrote with Yves
Guyot The Social Doctrines of Christianity. In '74 he
was elected a
municipal councillor of Paris. In '77 he was sentenced
to three
months' imprisonment for calling Jesus "enfant adulterin"
in Le Radical.
In Feb. '81 he was elected president of the municipal
council, and in
'83 deputy to the French parliament.
Laffitte
(Pierre), French Positivist philosopher, b. 21 Feb. 1823
at Beguey
(Gironde), became a disciple of Comte and one of his
executors. He
was professor of mathematics, but since the death of
his master has
given a weekly course of instruction in the former
apartment of
Comte. M. Laffitte has published discourses on The
General History
of Humanity, '59, and The Great Types of Humanity,
'75-6. In '78
he founded La Revue Occidentale.
Lagrange
(Joseph Louis), Count, eminent mathematician, b. Turin, 25
Jan. 1736. He
published in 1788 his Analytical Mechanics, which is
considered one
of the masterpieces of the human intellect. He became
a friend of
D'Alembert, Diderot, Condorcet, and Delambre. He said he
believed it
impossible to prove there was a God. Died 10 April 1813.
La Hontan
(Jean), early French traveller in Canada, b. 1666. In
his account of
Dialogues with an American Savage, 1704, which was
translated into
English, he states objections to religion. Died in
Hanover, 1715.
Lainez
(Alexandre), French poet, b. Chimay, Hainault, 1650, of the same
family with the
general of the Jesuits. He lived a wandering Bohemian
life and went
to Holland to see Bayle. Died at Paris 18 April, 1710.
Laing (Samuel),
politician and writer, b. Edinburgh 1812, the son of
S. Laing of
Orkney. Educated at Cambridge, where he took his degree
'32; called to
the bar '42; became secretary of the railway department
of the Board of
Trade; returned as Liberal M.P. for Kirkwall '52;
helped repeal
duty on advertisements in newspapers. In '60 he became
finance
minister for India. His Modern Science and Modern Thought,
'85, is a plain
exposition of the incompatibility of the old and
new view of the
universe. In the Modern Zoroastrian, '87, he gives
the philosophy
of polarity, in which, however, he was anticipated by
Mr. Crozier,
who in turn was anticipated by Emerson. In '88 he entered
into a friendly
correspondence with Mr. Gladstone on the subject of
Agnosticism his
portion of which has been published.
Lakanal
(Joseph), French educator, b. Serres, 14 July, 1762. Studied
for priesthood,
but gave up that career. He entered with ardor into the
Revolution, was
a member of the Convention 1792-5, and there protected
the interests
of science. At the restoration in 1814 he retired to
America, and
was welcomed by Jefferson and became president of the
University of
Louisiana. He returned to France after the Revolution of
'30, and died
in Paris 14 Feb. 1845.
Lalande (Joseph
Jèrome le Francais de), distinguished French
astronomer, b.
Bourg en Bresse, 11 July 1732. Educated by the Jesuits,
he was made a
member of the Academy of Sciences in his 20th year. In
1762 he became
Professor of Astronomy at the College of France. In
1764 he
published his Treatise of Astronomy, to which Dupuis subjoined
a memoir, which
formed the basis of his Origin of all Religions, the
idea of which
he had taken from Lalande. In Aug 1793 Lalande hazarded
his own life to
save Dupont de Nemours, and some priests whom he
concealed in
the observatory of Mazarin college. It was upon Lalande's
observations
that the Republican calender was drawn up. At Lalande's
instigation
Sylvain Maréchal published his Dictionary of Atheists,
to which the
astronomer contributed supplements after Maréchal's
death. Lalande
professed himself prouder of being an Atheist than
of being an
astronomer. His Bibliographie Astronomique is called by
Prof. de Morgan
"a perfect model of scientific bibliography." It was
said that never
did a young man address himself to Lalande without
receiving proof
of his generosity. He died at Paris 4 April, 1807.
Lamarck (Jean
Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet) French naturalist,
b. Picardy 1
Aug. 1744, educated for the Church, but entered the army
in 1761, and
fought with distinction. Having been disabled, he went
to Paris,
studied Botany, and published French Flora in 1788, which
opened to him
the Academy of Sciences. He became assistant at the
Museum of
Natural History, and in 1809 propounded, in his Zoological
Philosophy, a
theory of transmutation of species. His Natural History
of Invertebrate
Animals (1815-22) was justly celebrated. He became
blind several
years before his death, 18 Dec. 1829.
Lamborelle
(Louis). Belgian author of books on The Good Old Times,
Brussels, 1874;
The Apostles and Martyrs of Liberty of Conscience,
Antwerp, 1882,
and other anti-clerical works. Lamborelle lost a post
under
government through his anticlerical views, and is one of the
council of the
Belgian Freethought party.
Lamettrie
(Julian Offray de). French physician and philosopher,
b. St. Malo, 25
Dec. 1709. Destined for the Church, he was educated
under the
Jesuits at Caen. He, however, became a physician, studying
under
Boerhaave, at Leyden. Returning to France, he became surgeon
to the French
Guard, and served at the battles of Fontenoy and
Dettingen.
Falling ill, he noticed that his faculties fluctuated with
his physical
state, and drew therefrom materialistic conclusions. The
boldness with
which he made his ideas known lost him his place, and he
took refuge in
Holland. Here he published The Natural History of the
Soul, under the
pretence of its being a translation from the English
of Charp
[Sharp], 1745. This was followed by Man a Machine (1748),
a work which
was publicly burnt at Leyden, and orders given for the
author's
arrest. It was translated into English, and reached a second
edition
(London, 1750). It was often attributed to D'Argens. Lamettrie
held that the
senses are the only avenues to knowledge, and that it
is absurd to
assume a god to explain motion. Only under Atheism will
religious
strife cease. Lamettrie found an asylum with Frederick the
Great, to whom
he became physician and reader (Feb. 1748). Here he
published
Philosophical Reflections on the Origin of Animals (1750),
translated
Seneca on Happiness, etc. He died 11 Nov. 1751, and desired
by his will to
be buried in the garden of Lord Tyrconnel. The great
king thought so
well of him that he composed his funeral eulogy.
La Mothe Le
Vayer (François de). French sceptical philosopher,
b. Paris, 1588,
was patronised by Louis XIV., and was preceptor to
the Duke of
Anjou. Published The Virtue of Pagans and Dialogues
after the
Manner of the Ancients, in which he gave scope to his
scepticism. Two
editions of his collected works appeared, but neither
of these
contains The Dialogues of Orasius Tubero (Frankfort 1606,
probably a
false date). Died 1672.
Lancelin
(Pierre F.), French materialist, b. about 1770. Became a
constructive
engineer in the French navy, wrote an able Introduction
to the Analysis
of Science, 3 vols. 1801-3, and a physico-mathematical
theory of the
organisation of worlds, 1805. Died Paris, 1809.
Land (Jan
Pieter Nicolaus), Dutch writer, b. Delft, 23 April, 1834. Has
written
critical studies on Spinoza, and brought out an edition of
the
philosopher's works in conjunction with J. van Vloten.
Landesmann
(Heinrich). See Lorm.
Landor (Walter
Savage), English poet, b. Ipsley Court, Warwickshire,
30 Jan. 1775.
He was educated at Rugby and Oxford, and, inheriting
a fortune,
could indulge his tastes as an author. He published a
volume of poems
in 1795, and Gebir in 1798. An ardent Republican, he
served as a
volunteer colonel in the Spanish Army against Napoleon
from 1808 to
1814, besides devoting a considerable sum of money to
the Spanish
cause. He became a resident of Florence about 1816. His
reputation
chiefly rests on his great Imaginary Conversations, in
which many bold
ideas are presented in beautiful language. Landor
was
unquestionably the greatest English writer of his age. While
nominally a
Christian, he has scattered many Freethought sentiments
over his
various works. Died at Florence, 17 Sept. 1864.
Lanessan (Jean
Louis de), French naturalist, b. at Saint André de
Cubzac
(Gironde), 13 July, 1843. At 19 he became a naval physician, and
M.D. in '68. He
was elected in '79 as Radical member of the Municipal
Council of
Paris, and re-elected in '81. In August of the same year
he was elected
Deputy for the Department of the Seine. He founded
Le Reveil,
edited the Marseillaise, and started the International
Biological Library,
to which he contributed a study on the doctrine
of Darwin. He
has written a standard work on botany, and has written
vol. iii. of
the "Materialists' Library," on the Evolution of Matter.
Lanfrey
(Pierre), French author and senator, b. Chambéry, 26 Oct. 1828,
became known by
a book on The Church and the Philosophers of the
Eighteenth
Century, '55, and celebrated by his History of Napoleon
I. '67-75. M.
Lanfrey also wrote The Political History of the Popes,
a work placed
on the Index. Died at Pau, 15 Nov. 1877.
Lang (Andrew),
man of letters, b. Selkirk, 31 March, 1844. Educated
at St. Andrews
and Oxford. Mr. Lang made his name by his translation
of the Odyssey
with Mr. Butcher, and by his graceful poems and
ballads. He has
written In the Wrong Paradise, and many other
pleasant
sketches. More serious work is shown in Custom and Myth,
'84, and Myth,
Ritual and Religion, '87. A disciple of E. B. Tylor,
Mr. Lang
successfully upholds the evolutionary view of mythology.
Lang
(Heinrich), German Rationalist, b. 14 Nov. 1826. Studied theology
under Baur at
Tübingen, and became teacher at Zürich, where he died,
13 Jan. 1876.
Lange
(Friedrich Albert), German philosopher and writer, b. Wald,
near Solix, 28
Sept. 1828. He studied at Bonn, and became teacher in
the gymnasium
of Cologne, '52. In '53 he returned to Bonn as teacher
of philosophy,
and there enjoyed the friendship of Ueberweg. He became
proprietor and
editor of the democratic Landbote, and filled various
municipal
offices. In '70 he was called to the chair of philosophy at
Zürich, but
resigned in '72 and accepted a similar post at Marburg,
where he died
21 Nov. 1875. His fame rests on his important History
of Materialism,
which has been translated into English.
Langsdorf (Karl
Christian), German Deist, b. 18 May, 1757, author
of God and
Nature, a work on the immortality of the soul, and some
mathematical
books. Died Heidelberg, 10 June, 1834.
Lankester
(Edwin Ray), F.R.S., LL.D., English scientist, b. London, 15
May, 1847, and
educated at St. Paul's School and Oxford. Has published
many scientific
memoirs, revised the translation of Haeckel's History
of Creation,
and has done much to forward evolutionary ideas. In 1876
he exposed the
spiritist medium Slade, and procured his conviction. He
is Professor of
Zoology and Natural History in the University of
London.
La Place
(Pierre Simon). One of the greatest astronomers,
b.
Beaumont-en-Auge, 23 March, 1749. His father was a poor
peasant.
Through the influence of D'Alembert, La Place became professor
of mathematics
in the military school, 1768. By his extraordinary
abilities he
became in 1785 member of the Academy of Science, which
he enriched
with many memoirs. In 1796 he published his Exposition
of the System
of the Universe, a popularisation of his greater work
on Celestial
Mechanics, 1799-1825. Among his sayings were, "What we
know is but
little, what we know not is immense." "There is no need
for the
hypothesis of a God." Died Paris, 5 March, 1827.
Larevelliere-Lepaux
(Louis Marie DE), French politician, b. Montaigu
25 Aug. 1753.
Attached from youth to the ideas of Rousseau, he was
elected with
Volney to represent Angers in the national assembly. He
was a moderate
Republican, defended the proscribed Girondins, was
doomed himself
but escaped by concealment, and distinguished himself
by seeking to
replace Catholicism with theophilanthropy or natural
religion. He
wrote Reflections on Worship and the National Fêtes. He
became
President of the Directory, and after the 18 Brumaire retired,
refusing to
swear fealty to the empire though offered a pension by
Napoleon. Died
Paris, 27 March, 1824.
Larousse
(Pierre Athanase), French lexicographer, b. of poor parents,
23 Oct. 1817,
at Toucy, Yonne, where he became teacher. He edited
many school
books and founded the Grand Dictionnaire Universel du
XIXe. Siecle,
1864-77. This is a collection of dictionaries, and may
be called the
Encyclopedie of this century. Most of M. Larousse's
colleagues were
also Freethinkers. Died at Paris, 3 Jan. 1875.
Larra (Mariano
José de), distinguished Spanish author, b. Madrid,
4 March, 1809.
He went with his family to France and completed his
education. He
returned to Spain in '22. At eighteen he published
a collection of
poems, which was followed by El Duende Satirico
(The Satirical
Goblin). In '31 appeared his Pobrecito Hablador (Poor
Gossip), a
paper in which he unmercifully satirised the public affairs
and men of
Spain. It was suppressed after its fourteenth number. He
edited in the
following year the Revista Española, signing his articles
"Figaro."
He travelled through Europe, and on his return to Madrid
edited El
Mundo. Larra wrote also some dramas and translated Lamennais'
Paroles d'un
Croyant. Being disappointed in love he shot himself,
13 April, 1837.
Ch. de Mazade, after speaking of Larra's scepticism,
adds,
"Larra could see too deep to possess any faith whatever. All
the truths of
this world, he was wont to say, can be wrapped in a
cigarette
paper!"
Larroque
(Patrice), French philosopher, b. Beaume, 27 March, 1801. He
became a
teacher and was inspector of the academy of Toulouse, 1830-36,
and rector of
the academies of Cahors, Limoges, and Lyons, 1836-49. In
the latter year
he was denounced for his opposition to clerical ideas
and lost his
place. Among his numerous works we mention De l'Esclavage
chez les
Nations Chrétiennes, '57, in which he proves that Christianity
did not abolish
slavery. This was followed by an Critical Examination
of the
Christian Religion, '59, and a work on Religious Renovation,
'59, which
proposes a moral system founded upon pure deism. Both were
for a while
prohibited in France. M. Larroque also wrote on Religion
and Politics,
'78. Died at Paris, 15 June, 1879.
Lassalle
(Ferdinand Johann Gottlieb), founder of German Social
Democratic
party, b. of Jewish parents, 11 April, 1825, in Breslau,
studied
philosophy and law at Breslau and Berlin. He became a
follower of
Hegel and Feuerbach. Heine, at Paris, '46, was charmed
with him.
Humboldt called him "Wunderkind." In 1858 he published
a profound work
on the philosophy of Heraclitus. For planning an
insurrection
against the Prussian Government he was arrested, but
won his
acquittal. Died through a duel, 31 Aug. 1864.
Lastarria (José
Victorino), Chilian statesman and Positivist,
b. Rancagua,
1812. From youth he applied himself to teaching
and journalism,
and in '38 was appointed teacher of civil law and
literature in
the National Institute. He has founded several journals
and literary
societies. From '43 he has been at different times deputy
to the
legislature and secretary to the republic of Chili. He has
also served as
minister to Peru and Brazil. In '73 he founded the
Santiago
Academy of Science and Literature; has written many works,
and his
Lecciones de Politicia Positiva has been translated into
French by E. de
Rivière and others, 1879.
Lau (Theodor
Ludwig), German philosopher, b. at Königsberg, 15 June
1670, studied
at Königsberg and Halle, and about 1695 travelled
through
Holland, England, and France. In 1717 he published in Latin,
at Frankfort,
Philosophical Meditations on God, the World, and Man,
which excited
an outcry for its materialistic tendency and was
suppressed. He
was a follower of Spinoza, and held several official
positions from
which he was deposed on account of his presumed
atheism. Died
at Altona, 8 Feb. 1740.
Laurent
(François), Belgian jurisconsult, b. Luxembourg, 8 July,
1810. Studied
law and became an advocate. In '35 he was made
Professor of
Civil Law in the University of Ghent, a post he held,
despite
clerical protests, till his retirement in '80. A voluminous
author on civil
and international law, his principal work is entitled
Studies in the
History of Humanity. He was a strong advocate of the
separation of
Church and State, upon which he wrote, 1858-60. He also
wrote Letters
on the Jesuits, '65. Died in 1887.
Law (Harriet),
English lecturess, who for many years occupied the
secular
platform, and engaged in numerous debates. She edited the
Secular
Chronicle, 1876-1879.
Lawrence
(James), Knight of Malta, b. Fairfield, Jamaica, 1773, of good
Lancashire
family. Educated at Eton and Gottingen; became acquainted
with Schiller
and Goethe at Stuttgart and Weimar, was detained with
English
prisoners at Verdun. In 1807 he published his The Empire of
the Nairs, or
the Rights of Women, a free-love romance which he wrote
in German,
French, and English. He also wrote in French and English,
a curious
booklet The Children of God, London, 1853. He addressed a
poem on
Tolerance to Mr. Owen, on the occasion of his denouncing the
religions of
the world. It appears in The Etonian Out of Bounds. Died
at London 26
Sept. 1841.
Lawrence (Sir
William), surgeon, b. Cirencester, 1783. Admitted
M.R.C.S., 1805,
in '13 he was chosen, F.R.S., and two years later
was named
Professor of Anatomy and Surgery at the Royal College of
Surgeons. While
he held that chair he delivered his Lectures on Man,
which on their
publication in 1819 roused a storm of bigotry. In his
early manhood,
Lawrence was an earnest advocate of radical reform;
but
notwithstanding his early unpopularity, he acquired a lucrative
practice. Died
London, 5 July, 1867.
Layton (Henry),
educated at Oxford, and studied at Gray's Inn, being
called to the
bar. He wrote anonymously observations on Dr. Bentley's
Confutation of
Atheism (1693), and a Search After Souls, and Spiritual
Observations in
Man (1700).
Leblais
(Alphonse), French professor of mathematics, b. Mans,
1820. Author of
a study in Positivist philosophy entitled Materialism
and
Spiritualism (1865), to which Littré contributed a preface.
Le Bovier de Fontenelle.
See Fontenelle.
Lecky (William
Edward Hartpole), historian, b. near Dublin, 26 March,
1838. Educated
at Trinity College, Dublin. His works, which are
characterised
by great boldness and originality of thought, are
A History of
the Rise and Spirit of Rationalism in Europe ('65),
A History of
European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne ('69),
and A History
of England in the Eighteenth Century (1878-87).
Leclerc
(Georges Louis). See Buffon.
Leclerc de
Septchenes (N.), b. at Paris. Became secretary to Louis
XVI.,
translated the first three vols. of Gibbon, and wrote an essay
on the religion
of the ancient Greeks (1787). A friend of Lalande,
he prepared an
edition of Freret, published after his death. Died at
Plombieres, 9
June, 1788.
Leconte de Lisle
(Charles Marie René), French poet, b. Isle of Bourbon,
23 Oct. 1818.
After travelling in India, returned to Paris, and took
part in the
revolution of '48, but has since devoted himself mainly
to poetry,
though he has written also A Republican Catechism and A
Popular History
of Christianity ('71). One of his finest poems is
Kain. On being
elevated to the seat of Victor Hugo at the Academy in
'87, he gave
umbrage to Jews and Catholics by incidentally speaking
of Moses as
"the chief of a horde of ferocious nomads."
Lecount
(Peter), lieutenant in the French navy. He was engaged in
the battle of
Navarino. Came to England as a mathematician in the
construction of
the London and Birmingham Railway, of which he wrote
a history
(1839). He wrote a curious book in three volumes entitled A
Few Hundred
Bible Contradictions; A Hunt After the Devil and other Old
Matters, by
John P. Y., M.D.; published by H. Hetherington ('43). The
author's name
occurs on p. 144, vol i., as "the Rev. Peter Lecount."
Leenhof
(Frederick van), b. Middelburg (Zealand), Aug. 1647. Became
a minister of
Zwolle, where he published a work entitled Heaven on
Earth (1703),
which subjected him to accusations of Atheism. It was
translated into
German in 1706.
Lefevre
(André), French writer, b. Provins, 9 Nov. 1834. He became,
at the age of
twenty-three, one of the editors of the Magasin
Pittoresque. He
wrote much in La Libre Pensée and La Pensée Nouvelle;
has translated
Lucretius in verse ('76), and written Religions and
Mythologies
Compared ('77); contributed a sketchy History of Philosophy
to the Library
of Contemporary Science ('78); has written Man Across
the Ages ('80)
and the Renaissance of Materialism ('81). He has also
edited the
Lettres Persanes of Montesquieu, some Dialogues of Voltaire,
and Diderot's
La Religieuse ('86).
Lefort (César),
disciple of Comte. Has published a work on the method
of modern
science (Paris, 1864).
Lefrancais de
Lalande. See Lalande.
Legate
(Bartholomew), Antitrinitarian native of Essex, b. about 1572,
was thrown into
prison on a charge of heresy, 1611. King James had
many personal
interviews with him. On one occasion the king asked him
if he did not
pray to Jesus Christ. He replied that he had done so in
the days of his
ignorance, but not for the last seven years. "Away,
base
fellow!" said His Majesty, "It shall never be said that one
stayeth in my
presence who hath never prayed to the Savior for seven
years
together." He was burnt at Smithfield by the King's writ, De
Hæretico
Comburendo, 18 March, 1612, being one of the last persons
so punished in
England.
Leguay de
Premontval. See Premontval.
Le Hon (Henri)
Belgian scientist, b. Ville-Pommeroeul (Hainault) 1809,
was captain in
the Belgian army, professor at the military school of
Brussels, and
Chevalier of the Order of Leopold. Author of L'Homme
Fossile en
Europe, '66. Translated Professor Omboni's exposition of
Darwinism. Died
at San Remo, 1872.
Leidy (Joseph),
M.D., American naturalist, b. Philadelphia, 9
Sept. 1823. He
became professor of biology at the University of
Philadelphia,
and is eminent for his contributions to American
palæontology.
Leigh (Henry
Stone), English author of a Deistic work on the Religions
of the World,
1869.
Leland (Theron
C.), American journalist, b. 9 April, 1821. He edited
with Wakeman
the journal Man. Died 2 June, 1885.
Lemaire
(Charles), member of the Academical Society of Saint Quentin,
author of an
atheistic philosophical work, in two vols., entitled
Initiation to
the Philosophy of Liberty, Paris, 1842.
Lemonnier
(Camille), Belgian writer, b. Ixel les Bruxelles, 1845,
author of
stories and works on Hysteria, Death, etc., in which he
evinces his
freethought sentiments.
Lenau
(Nicolaus), i.e. Nicolaus Franz Niembsch von Strehlenau,
Hungarian poet,
b. Czatad, 15 Aug. 1802. His poems, written in German,
are
pessimistic, and his constitutional melancholy deepened into
insanity. Died
Ober-Döbling, near Vienna, 22 Aug. 1850.
Lennstrand
(Viktor E.), Swedish writer and orator, b. Gefle,
30 Jan. 1861.
Educated at Upsala University. Founded the Swedish
Utilitarian
Society, March '88, and in May was sentenced to a fine of
250 crowns for
denial of the Christian religion. On the 29th Nov. he
was imprisoned
for three months for the same offence. Has written
several
pamphlets and has incurred several fresh prosecutions. In
company with A.
Lindkvist he has founded the Fritankaren as the organ
of Swedish
freethought.
Leontium,
Athenian Hetæra, disciple and mistress of Epicurus (q.v.) She
acquired
distinction as a philosopher, and wrote a treatise against
Theophrastus,
which is praised by Cicero as written in a skilful and
elegant manner.
Leopardi
(Giacomo), count, Italian pessimist poet, b. Recanati
(Ancona), 29
June, 1798. In 1818 he won a high place among poets by
his lines
addressed To Italy. His Canti, '31, are distinguished by
eloquence and
pathos, while his prose essays, Operette Morali, '27, are
esteemed the
finest models of Italian prose of this century. Leopardi's
short life was
one long disease, but it was full of work of the
highest character.
As a poet, philologist, and philosopher, he is
among the
greatest of modern Italians. Died at Naples, 14 July, 1837.
Lequinio
(Joseph Marie), French writer and Conventionnel, b. Sarzeau,
1740. Elected
Mayor of Rennes, 1790, and Deputy from Morbihar to
the Legislative
Assembly. He then professed Atheism. He voted the
death of Louis
XVI. "regretting that the safety of the state did not
permit his
being condemned to penal servitude for life." In 1792 he
published
Prejudices Destroyed, signed "Citizen of the World," in
which he
considered religion as a political chain. He took part in the
Feasts of
Reason, and wrote Philosophy of the People, 1796. Died 1813.
Lermina (Jules
Hippolyte), French writer, b. 27 March, 1839. Founded
the Corsair and
Satan, and has published an illustrated biographical
dictionary of
contemporary France, 1884-5.
Lermontov
(Mikhail Yur'evich), Russian poet and novelist, b. Moscow,
3 Oct. 1814.
Said to have come of a Scotch family, he studied at Moscow
University,
from which he was expelled. In '32 he entered the Military
Academy at St.
Petersburg, and afterwards joined the Hussars. In
'37 some verses
on the death of Pushkin occasioned his being sent to
the Caucasus,
which he describes in a work translated into English,
'53. His poems
are much admired. The Demon, exhibiting Satan in love,
has been
translated into English, and so has his romance entitled A
Hero of Our
Times. He fell in a duel in the Caucasus, 15 July, 1840.
Leroux
(Pierre), French Socialist and philosophic writer, b. Bercy,
near Paris, 6
April, 1797. At first a mason, then a typographer, he
invented an
early composing machine which he called the pianotype. In
1824 he became
editor of the Globe. Becoming a Saint Simonian,
he made this
paper the organ of the sect. He started with Reynaud
L'Encyclopédie
Nouvelle, and afterwards with L. Viardot and Mme. George
Sand the Revue
Indépendante ('41), which became noted for its pungent
attacks on
Catholicism. His principal work is De l'Humanite ('40). In
June '48 M.
Leroux was elected to the Assembly. After the coup d'état
he returned to
London and Jersey. Died at Paris, 12 April, 1871.
Leroy (Charles
Georges), lieutenant ranger of the park of Versailles,
b. 1723, one of
the writers on the Encyclopédie. He defended the work
of Helvetius on
the Mind against Voltaire, and wrote Philosophical
Letters on the
Intelligence and Perfectibility of Animals (1768),
a work
translated into English in 1870. Died at Paris 1789.
Lespinasse
(Adolf Frederik Henri de). Dutch writer, b. Delft, 14 May,
1819. Studied
medicine, and established himself first at Deventer and
afterwards at
Zwartsluis, Vaassen, and Hasselt. In the Dageraad he
wrote many
interesting studies under the pen-name of "Titus," and
translated the
work of Dupuis into Dutch. In 1870 he emigrated to
America and
became director of a large farm in Iowa. Died in Orange
City (Iowa)
1881.
L'Espinasse
(Julie Jeanne Eléonore de). French beauty and wit,
b. Lyons, 9
Nov. 1732. She became the protégé of Madame du Deffand, and
gained the
favor of D'Alembert. Her letters are models of sensibility
and spirit.
Died Paris, 23 May, 1776.
Lessing
(Gotthold Ephraim). German critic and dramatic poet, b. Kamenz,
22 Jan. 1729.
He studied at Leipsic, and at Berlin became acquainted
with Voltaire
and Mendelssohn. Made librarian at Wolfenbüttel he
published
Fragments of an Unknown (1777), really the Vindication of
Rational
Worshippers of God, by Reimarus, in which it was contended
that Christian
evidences are so clad in superstition as to be unworthy
credence. Among
his writings were The Freethinker and Nathan the
Wise, his
noblest play, in which he enforces lessons of toleration
and charity to
all faiths. The effect of his writings was decidedly
sceptical.
Heine calls Lessing, after Luther, the greatest German
emancipator.
Died at Brunswick 15 Feb. 1781.
Lessona
(Michele). Italian naturalist, b. 20 Sept., 1823; has
translated some
of the works of Darwin.
Leucippus.
Greek founder of the atomic philosophy.
L'Estrange
(Thomas), writer, b. 17 Jan. 1822. With a view to entering
the Church he
graduated at Trinity College, Dublin, 26 Feb. '44,
but became an
attorney. Having read F. A. Paley's Introduction to the
Iliad, he
became convinced that the "cooking" process there described,
has been
undergone by all sacred books now extant. He wrote for Thomas
Scott's series
valuable tracts on Our First Century, Primitive Church
History,
Irenæus, Order, The Eucharist. He also edited Hume's Dialogues
on Natural
Religion, and wrote The First Ten Alleged Persecutions.
Levallois
(Jules), French writer, b. Rouen 18 May, 1829. In '55 he
became
secretary to Sainte Beuve. Wrote Déisme et Christianisme, 1866.
Lewes (George
Henry), English man of letters, b. in London, 18
April, 1817, he
became a journalist and dramatic critic. In 1845-6
appeared his
Biographical History of Philosophy, which showed higher
power. This has
been republished as History of Philosophy from Thales
to Comte. Lewes
was one of the first to introduce English readers to
Comte in his
account of Comte's Philosophy of the Sciences, '47. In
'49 he became
one of the founders of the Leader, for which he wrote
till '54. In
that year he began his association with "George Eliot"
(q.v.). His
Life of Goethe appeared in '55, and from this time he
began to give
his attention to scientific, especially biological,
studies. In '64
he published an important essay on Aristotle. On
the foundation
of the Fortnightly Review, '65, Lewes was appointed
editor. His
last work, Problems of Life and Mind, 5 vols. '74-79,
was never
completed owing to his death, 28 Nov. 1878. He bequeathed
his books to
Dr. Williams's library.
Lichtenberg
(Georg Christoph), German satirical writer and scientist,
b.
Ober-Ramstädt, 1 July, 1742; a friend of G. Forster, he left many
thoughts
showing his advanced opinions. Died Göttingen, 24 Feb. 1799.
Lick (James),
American philanthropist, b. Fredericksburg, Pa., 25
Aug. 1796. In
1847 he settled in California and made a large fortune
by investing in
real estate. He was a Materialist and bequeathed
large sums to the
Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, and for other
philanthropic
purposes. Died San Francisco, 1 Oct. 1876.
Lilja
(Nicolai), Swedish writer, b. Rostanga, 18 Oct. 1808. Studied
at Lund and
became parish clerk in the Lund diocese. He wrote, on Man;
his Life and
Destiny. Died Lund 1870.
Lincoln
(Abraham), sixteenth President of the United States,
b. Kentucky, 12
Feb. 1809. An uncompromising opponent of slavery,
his election
(Nov. '60) led to the civil war and the emancipation
of slaves. Ward
H. Lamon, who knew him well, says he "read Volney
and Paine and
then wrote a deliberate and labored essay, wherein
he reached
conclusions similar to theirs. The essay was burnt, but
he never denied
or regretted its composition." Mrs. Lincoln said,
"Mr.
Lincoln had no hope and no faith in the usual acceptance of those
words."
Assassinated 14 April, 1865, he expired the following morning.
Lindet (Robert
Thomas), "apostate" French bishop, b. Bernay, 1743. Was
elected to the
States-General by the clergy of his district. He
embraced
Republican principles, and in March, 1791, was made Bishop
of L'Eure. In
Nov. 1792 he publicly married. On 7 Nov. 1793, renounced
his bishopric.
He proposed that civil festivals should take the place
of religious
ones. He became member of the Conseil des Anciens. Died
Bernay, 10 Aug.
1823, and was buried without religious service.
Lindh (Theodor
Anders), b. Borgo (Finland), 13 Jan. 1833. Studied
at Helsingfors
University, '51-57; became lawyer in '71, and is
now a member of
the Municipal Council of Borgo. He has written many
poems in
Swedish, and also translated from the English poets, and has
published
Freethought essays, which have brought him into controversy
with the
clergy.
Lindkvist
(Alfred), Swedish writer, b. Gefle, 21 Oct. 1860, of
pious parents.
At the University of Upsala he studied European
literature, and
became acquainted with the works of Mill, Darwin,
and Spencer. He
has published two volumes of poems, Snow Drops and
April Days, and
lost a stipend at the University by translating
from the Danish
a rationalistic life of Jesus entitled The Reformer
from Galilee.
Mr. Lindkvist has visited Paris, and collaborated on
a Stockholm
daily paper. In '88 he joined his friend Lennstrand in
propagating
Freethought, and in Nov. received a month's imprisonment
for having
translated one of J. Symes's anti-Christian pamphlets. He
now edits
Fritankaren in conjunction with Mr. Lennstrand.
Lindner (Ernst
Otto Timotheus), German physician, b. Breslau, 28
Nov. 1820. A
friend of Schopenhauer, whose philosophy he maintained
in several
works on music. He edited the Vossische Zeitung from
'63. Died at
Berlin, 7 Aug. 1867.
Liniere
(François Payot de), French satiric poet, b. Paris, 1628;
known as the
Atheist of Senlis. Boileau says the only act of piety
he ever did was
drinking holy water because his mistress dipped her
finger in it.
Wrote many songs and smart epigrams, and is said to have
undertaken a
criticism of the New Testament. Died at Paris in 1704.
Linton (Eliza,
née Lynn) novelist and journalist, daughter of vicar
of Crosthwaite,
Cumberland, b. Keswick, 1822. Has contributed largely
to the leading
Radical journals, and has written numerous works of
fiction, of
which we must mention Under which Lord? and The Rebel of
the Family. In
'72 she published The True History of Joshua Davidson,
Christian and
Communist, and in '85 the Autobiography of Christopher
Kirkland. She
has also written on the woman question, and contributed
largely to
periodical literature.
Linton (William
James), poet, engraver, and author, b. at London,
1812. A
Chartist in early life, he was intimately associated with
the chief
political refugees. He contributed to the democratic press,
and also, we
believe, to the Oracle of Reason. He wrote the Reasoner
tract on
"The Worth of Christianity." He was one of the founders of
the Leader, has
edited the Truthseeker, the National and the English
Republic, and
has published Famine a Masque, a Life of Paine, and a
memoir of James
Watson and some volumes of poems. In '67 he went to
America, but
has recently returned.
Liscow
(Christian Ludwig), one of the greatest German satirists,
b. Wittenberg,
29 April, 1701. He studied law in Jena, and became
acquainted with
Hagedorn in Hamburg. In 1745 he was Councillor of War
at Dresden.
This post he abandoned, occupying himself with literature
until his
death, 30 Oct. 1760. Liscow's principal satires are The
Uselessness of
Good Works for our Salvation and The Excellence and
Utility of Bad
Writers. He has been called the German Swift, and his
works show him
to have been an outspoken Freethinker.
Lisle (Lionel),
author of The Two Tests: the Supernatural Claims of
Christianity
Tried by Two of its own Rules (London, 1877).
Liszinski
(Casimir), Polish martyr of noble birth. Denounced as an
Atheist in 1688
by the Bishop of Wilna and Posnovia, he was decapitated
and burnt at
Grodno 30 March, 1689. His ashes were placed in a cannon
and scattered
abroad. Among the statements in Liszinski's papers was
that man was
the creator of God, whom he had formed out of nothing.
Littre
(Maximilian Paul Emile), French philologist and philosopher,
b. Paris, 1
Feb. 1801. He studied medicine, literature and most of
the sciences.
An advanced Republican, he was one of the editors of
the National.
His edition of the works of Hippocrates (1839-61) proved
the
thoroughness of his learning. He embraced the doctrines of Comte,
and in '45
published a lucid analysis of the Positive Philosophy. He
translated the
Life of Jesus, by Strauss, and wrote the Literary
History of
France. His Dictionary of the French Language, in which he
applied the
historical method to philology, is one of the most colossal
works ever
performed by one man. He wrote on Comte and Positive
Philosophy,
Comte and Mill, etc., but refused to follow Comte in his
later vagaries.
From '67 till his death he conducted La Philosophie
Positive.
Littré also wrote Science from the Standpoint of Philosophy,
'73; Literature
and History, '75; Fragments of Positive Philosophy
and
Contemporary Sociology, '76. He was proposed for the Academy in
'63, but was
bitterly opposed by Bishop Dupanloup, and was elected in
'71. In the
same year he was elected to the National Assembly, and in
'75 was chosen
senator. Under the Empire he twice refused the Legion
of Honor. After
a long life of incessant labor, he died at Paris,
2 June 1881.
Lloyd (John
William), American poet and writer, b. of Welsh-English
stock at
Westfield, New Jersey, 4 June, 1857. Is mostly
self-educated.
After serving apprenticeship as a carpenter, became
assistant to
Dr. Trall. Brought up as an orthodox Christian he became
an Agnostic and
Anarchist, and has written much in Liberty and Lucifer.
Lohmann
(Hartwic), a native of Holstein, who in 1616 occupied a
good position
in Flensburg. He was accused of Atheism. In 1635 he
practised medicine
at Copenhagen. He wrote a work called the Mirror
of Faith. Died
1642.
Lollard
(Walter), heretic and martyr, b. England, towards end of
thirteenth
century, began to preach in Germany in 1315. He rejected
the sacraments
and ceremonies of the Church. It is said he chose
twelve apostles
to propagate his doctrines and that he had many
followers.
Arrested at Cologne in 1322, he was burnt to death, dying
with great
courage.
Loman (Abraham
Dirk), Dutch rationalist, b. The Hague 16 Sep. 1823. He
holds the entire
New Testament to be unhistorical, and the Pauline
Epistles to
belong to the second century, and has written many
critical works.
Lombroso
(Cesare). Italian writer and scientist, b. Nov. 1836,
has been a
soldier and military physician. Introduced Darwinism to
Italy. Has
written several works, mostly in relation to the physiology
of criminals.
Longet
(François Achille), French physiologist, b. St. Germain-en-Laye,
1811, published
a Treatise on Physiology in 3 vols. and several
medical works.
Died Bordeaux, 20 April, 1871.
Longiano
(Sebastiano). See Fausto.
Longue (Louis
Pierre de), French Deist, writer in the service of
the house of
Conti; wrote Les Princesses de Malabares, Adrianople,
1734, in which
he satirised religion. It was condemned to be burnt
31 Dec. 1734,
and a new edition published in Holland with the imprint
Tranquebar,
1735.
Lorand
(Georges), Belgian journalist, b. Namur, 1851, studied
law at Bologna
(Italy) and soon became an active propagator of
Atheistic
doctrines among the youth of the University and in workmen
associations.
He edits La Réforme at Brussels, the ablest daily
exponent of
Freethought and Democratic doctrines in Belgium. He has
lately headed
an association for the suppression of the standing army.
"Lorm
(Hieronymus)," the pen name of Heinrich Landesmann. German
pessimistic
poet, b. Nikolsberg, 9 Aug. 1821. In addition to many
philosophical
poems, he has written essays entitled Nature and Spirit,
Vienna, '84.
Lozano
(Fernando), Spanish writer in Las Dominicales dal Libre
Pensamiento,
where he uses the signature "Demofilo." He has written
Battles of
Freethought, Possessed by the Devil, The Church and
Galeote, etc.
Lubbock (Sir
John), banker, archæologist, scientist and statesman,
b. in London,
30 April, 1834. Educated at Eton, he was taken into
his father's
bank at the age of fourteen, and became a partner in
'56. By his
archæological works he has most distinguished himself. He
has written
Prehistoric Times as Illustrated by Ancient Remains,
and the Manners
and Customs of Modern Savages ('65), and The Origin
of Civilisation
and the Primitive Condition of Man ('70).
Lucretius Carus
(Titus). Roman philosophical poet, b. about
B.C. 99. Little
is known of his life, but his name is immortalised
by his
atheistic work, De Rerum Natura, in six books, which is the
finest didactic
poem in any language. Lucretius has been said to
have believed
in one god, Epicurus, whose system he expounds. Full
of animation,
dignity, and sublimity, he invests philosophy with the
grace of
genius. Is said to have died by his own hand B.C. 55.
Luetzelberger
(Ernst Karl Julius), German controversialist
b. Ditterswind,
19 Oct. 1802. He was a friend of the Feuerbachs. He
wrote on The
Church Tradition of the Apostle John. He also wrote a
work on Jesus,
translated in Ewerbeck's Qu'est ce que la Religion. In
'56 he was
appointed town librarian at Nuremberg.
Lunn (Edwin),
Owenite lecturer. Published pamphlets On Prayer, its
Folly,
Inutility, etc. 1839, and Divine Revelation Examined, 1841.
Luys (Jules
Bernard), French alienist, b. Paris, 1828. Is physician
at l'Hopital de
la Charité, Paris, and author of a work on The Brain
and its
Functions in the "International Scientific Series."
Lyell (Sir
Charles), geologist, b. Kinnordy, Forfarshire, 14
Nov. 1797. Was
educated at Exeter College, Oxford, and devoted himself
to geology. In
1830-33 appeared his great work, The Principles of
Geology, which
went through numerous editions. His last important
work was
Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, in which he
accepts the
Darwinian theory. Died 22 Feb. 1875.
Maccall
(William), writer, b. Largs. Scotland, 1812. Educated at
Glasgow, he
found his way to the Unitarian Church which he left
as
insufficiently broad. He wrote Elements of Individualism ('47),
translated
Spinoza's Treatise on Politics ('54), wrote to the Critic as
"Atticus,"
contributed to the National Reformer, Secular Review, etc.,
published
Foreign Biographies ('73), and translated Dr. Letourneau's
Biology and
other works. Maccall was an idealistic Pantheist of strong
individual
character. Died at Bexley, 19 Nov. 1888.
Macchi (Mauro),
Italian writer, b. Milan, 1 July, 1818. Became
professor of
rhetoric at the age of twenty-four, when, becoming
obnoxious to
the Austrians by the liberty of his opinions, he was
deprived of his
position. He betook himself to radical journalism,
founded
l'Italia, a Republican journal, for which he was exiled. He
was associated
with Ausonio Franchi and Luigi Stefanoni in the Libero
Pensiero and
the Libero Pensatore, and founded an Italian Association
of
Freethinkers. In '61 he was elected deputy to Parliament for
Cremona, and in
'79 was elevated to the Senate. Died at Rome, 24
Dec. 1880. One
of his principal works is on the Council of Ten.
Macdonald
(Eugene Montague), editor of the New York Truthseeker,
b. Chelsea,
Maine, 4 Feb. 1855. He learned the printer's trade in
New York, where
he became foreman to D. M. Bennett, and contributed
to the paper,
which he has conducted since Mr. Bennett's death.
Macdonald
(George), brother of the preceding. Wrote on the Truthseeker,
and now
conducts Freethought, of San Francisco, in company with
S. P. Putnam.
George Macdonald is a genuine humorist and a sound
Freethinker.
McDonnell
(William), American novelist, b. 15 Sept. 1824. Author of The
Heathens of the
Heath and Exeter Hall, '73, both Freethought romances.
Mackay (Robert
William), author of The Progress of the Intellect,
1850, Sketch of
the Rise and Progress of Christianity, '53, and The
Tubingen
School, '63.
Mackey (Sampson
Arnold), astronomer and shoemaker, of Norwich,
who is said to
have constructed an orrery out of leather. He wrote
The
Mythological Astronomy of the Ancients, Norwich, 1822-24,
Pious Frauds,
'26, A Lecture on Astronomy and Geology, edited by
W. D. Saull,
'32, Urania's Key to the Revelation, '33, and The Age
of Mental
Emancipation, '36-39. Mackey also wrote the Sphinxiad,
a rare book.
Died 1846.
Mackintosh
(Thomas Simmons), author of The Electrical Theory of the
Universe, 1848,
and An Inquiry into the Nature of Responsibility. Died
1850.
MacSweeney
(Myles), mythologist, b. at Enniskillen 1814. He came to
London, and
hearing Robert Taylor at the Rotunda in 1830, adopted his
views. He held
that Jesus never existed, and wrote in the National
Reformer,
Secular Chronicle, and other papers. He published a pamphlet
on Moses and
Bacchus in 1874. Died Jan. 1881.
Madach (Imré),
Hungarian patriot and poet, b. 21 Jan. 1823, at
Sztregova,
studied at the University of Buda Pesth, and afterwards
lived at
Cseszlova. He was in '52 incarcerated for a year for having
given asylum at
his castle to a political refugee. He became in '61
delegate at
Pesth. In this year he published his fine poem Az Ember
Tragédiája (The
Human Tragedy), in which mankind is personified as
Adam, with
Lucifer in his company. Many Freethought views occur in
this poem. Died
5 Oct. 1864. His works were published in 3 vols., 1880.
Maier
(Lodewyk). See Meyer.
Maillet (Benôit
de). French author, b. Saint Michiel, 12 April,
1656. He was
successively consul in Egypt and at Leghorn; and died at
Marseilles, 30
Jan. 1738. After his death was published "Telliamed"
(the anagram of
his name), in which he maintained that all land
was originally
covered with water and that every species of animal,
man included,
owes its origin to the sea.
"Mainlaender"
(Philipp), pseudonym of Philipp Batz, German pessimist,
author of a
profound work entitled the Philosophy of Redemption,
the first part
of which was published in 1876. It was said that
"Mainländer"
committed suicide in that year, but the second part of
his work has
come out 1882-86. He holds that Polytheism gives place
to Monotheism
and Pantheism, and these again to Atheism. "God is dead,
and his death
was the life of the world."
Malherbe
(François de). French poet, b. Caen, 1555. He served in
the civil wars
of the League, and enjoyed the patronage of Henry
IV. He was
called the prince of poets and the poet of princes. Many
stories are
told illustrating his sceptical raillery. When told upon
his death-bed
of paradise and hell he said he had lived like others
and would go
where others went. Died Paris, 16 Oct. 1628.
Mallet (Mme.
Josephine). French authoress of a work on The Bible,
its origin,
errors and contradictions (1882).
Malon (Benoît).
French Socialist, b. near St. Etienne, 1841. One
of the founders
of the International; he has written a work on that
organisation,
its history and principles (Lyons, 1872). He is editor
on
L'Intransigeant, conducted the Revue Socialiste, and has written
on the religion
and morality of the Socialists and other works.
Malvezin
(Pierre). French journalist, b. Junhac, 26 June 1841. Author
of La Bible
Farce (Brussels, 1879.) This work was condemned
and suppressed,
1880, and the author sentenced to three month's
imprisonment.
He conducts the review La Fraternité.
Mandeville
(Bernhard), b. Dort. 1670. He studied medicine, was made
a doctor in
Holland, and emigrated to London. In 1705 he published
a poetical
satire, The Grumbling Hive, or Knaves Turned Honest. In
1709, he
published The Virgin Unmasked, and in 1723, Free Thoughts on
Religion the
Church and National Happiness. In the same year appeared
his Fables of
the Bees or Private Vices, Public Benefits. This work
was presented
by the grand jury of Middlesex, 1723 and 1728. It was
attacked by
Law, Berkeley, and others. Mandeville replied to Berkeley
in A Letter to
Dion, occasioned by a book called Alciphron, or the
Minute
Philosopher, 1732. He also wrote An Inquiry of Honor, and
Usefulness of
Christianity in War, 1731. Died, London, 19 Jan. 1733.
Mantegazza
(Paolo), Italian anthropologist, b. Monza, 31
Oct. 1831.
Studied medicine at Milan, Pisa, and Paria, and travelled
considerably
through Europe, and produced at Paris in 1854 his first
book The
Physiology of Pleasure. He has also written on the physiology
of pain,
spontaneous generation, anthropological works on Ecstacy,
Love and other
topics, and a fine romance Il Dio Ignoto, the unknown
god (1876).
Mantegazza is one of the most popular and able of Italian
writers.
Manzoni
(Romeo), Dr. Italian physician, b. Arogno, 1847, studied
philosophy at
Milan, and graduated at Naples. He has written on the
doctrine of
love of Bruno and Schopenhauer A Life of Jesus, also Il
Prete, a work
translated into German with the title Religion as a
Pathological
Phenomenon, etc.
Marchena
(José), Spanish writer, b. Utrera, Andalusia, 1768. Brought
up for the
church, reading the writings of the French philosophers
brought on him
the Inquisition. He fled to France where he became
a friend of
Brissot and the Girondins. He wrote a pronounced Essai
de Théologie,
1797, and translated into Spanish Molière's Tartufe,
and some works
of Voltaire. He translated Dupuis' Origine de tous
les Cultes,
became secretary to Murat, and died 10 Jan. 1821.
Marechal
(Pierre Sylvain), French author, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1750;
was brought up
to the Bar, which he quitted for the pursuit of
literature. He
was librarian to the Mazarin College, but lost his
place by his
Book Escaped from the Deluge, Psalms, by S. Ar. Lamech
(anagram),
1784. This was a parody of the style of the prophets. In
1781 he wrote
Le Nouveau Lucrece. In 1788 appeared his Almanack of
Honest People,
in which the name of Jesus Christ was found beside
that of
Epicurus. The work was denounced to Parliament, burnt at the
hands of the
hangman, and Maréchal imprisoned for four months. He
welcomed the
Revolution, and published a republican almanack, 1793. In
1797 and 1798
he published his Code of a Society of Men without God,
and Free
Thoughts on the Priests. In 1799 appeared his most learned
work, Travels
of Pythagoras in Egypt, Chaldea, India, Rome, Carthage,
Gaul, etc. 6
vols. Into this fiction Maréchal puts a host of bold
philosophical,
political, and social doctrines. In 1800 he published
his famous
Dictionary of Atheists, which the Government prohibited and
interdicted
journals from noticing. In the following year appeared
his For and
Against the Bible. Died at Montrouge, 18 Jan. 1803. His
beneficence is
highly spoken of by Lalande.
Maret (Henry),
French journalist and deputy, b. Santerre, 4 March,
1838. He ably
combatted against the Empire, and edits Le Radical;
was elected
deputy in '81.
Marguerite, of
Valois, Queen of Navarre, sister to Francis I. b. at
Angouleme, 11
April, 1492. Deserves place for her protection to
religious
reformers. Died 21 Dec. 1549.
Marguetel de
Saint Denis. See Saint Evremond (C.)
Mario
(Alberto), Italian patriot, b. 3 June, 1825. He edited the
Tribune and
Free Italy, became aide-de-camp to Garibaldi and married
Jessie White,
an English lady. In '60 he wrote a polemic against the
papacy entitled
Slavery and Thought. Died 2 June, 1883.
Marlow
(Christopher), English poet and dramatist, b. Canterbury,
8 Feb. 1564.
Educated at Benet College, Cambridge, where he took his
degree in 1587.
He devoted himself to dramatic writing and according
to some became
an actor. He was killed in a brawl at Deptford, 1 June,
1593, in time
to escape being tried on an information laid against him
for Atheism and
blasphemy. The audacity of his genius is displayed in
Tamburlaine and
Dr. Faustus. Of the latter, Goethe said "How greatly
is it all
planned." Swinburne says "He is the greatest discoverer,
the most daring
and inspired pioneer in all our poetic literature."
Marr (Wilhelm),
German socialist, author of Religious Excursions,
1876, and
several anti-Semitic tracts.
Marsais (Cesar
Chesneau du). See Du Marsais.
Marselli
(Niccola), Italian writer, b. Naples, 5 Nov. 1832. Author
of advanced
works on the Science of History, Nature and Civilisation,
the Origin of
Humanity, the Great Races of Humanity, etc.
Marston (Philip
Bourke), English poet, b. London, 13 Aug. 1850. He
became blind in
childhood, and devoted to poetry. A friend of
D. G. Rossetti,
Swinburne, and Thomson, his poems are sad and
sincere. Died
14 Feb. 1887, and was buried in accordance with his
own wishes in
unconsecrated ground at Highgate, and without religious
service.
Marsy (François
Marie de), b. Paris, 1714, educated as a Jesuit. He
brought out an
analysis of Bayle, 1755, for which he was confined in
the Bastile.
Died 16 Dec. 1763.
Marten (Henry),
regicide, b. Oxford, 1602. Educated at Oxford, where
he proceeded
B.A., 1619. He was elected to Parliament in 1640, and
expelled for
his republican sentiments in 1643. He resumed his seat
6 Jan. 1646,
took part in the civil war, sat as one of King Charles's
judges, and
became one of the Council of State. He proposed the repeal
of the statute
of banishment against the Jews, and when it was sought
to expel all
profane persons, proposed to add the words "and all
fools."
Tried for regicide 10 Oct. 1660, he was kept in Chepstow
Castle till his
death, Sep. 1680. Carlyle calls him "sworn foe of
Cant in all its
figures; an indomitable little Pagan if not better."
Martin (Emma),
English writer and lecturess, b. Bristol, 1812. Brought
up as a
Baptist, she, for a time, edited the Bristol Magazine. She
wrote the
Exiles of Piedmont and translated from the Italian the Maxims
of
Guicciardini. The trials of Holyoake and Southwell for blasphemy
led her to
inquire and embrace the Freethought cause. While Holyoake
and Paterson
were in gaol, Mrs. Martin went about committing the
"crime"
for which they were imprisoned. In '43 she published Baptism A
Pagan Rite.
This was followed by Tracts for the People on the Bible no
Revelation,
Religion Superseded, Prayer, God's Gifts and Men's Duties,
a conversation
on the being of God, etc. She also lectured and wrote
on the
Punishment of Death, to which she was earnestly opposed. Died
Oct. 1851.
Martin (Bon
Louis Henri), French historian, b. St. Quentin, 20
Feb. 1810. He
was sent to Paris to study law, but abandoned it for
history. His
History of France, in nineteen vols. (1838-53), is
a monumental
work of erudition. A confirmed Republican, he warmly
opposed the
Second Empire and after its fall became member of the
National
Assembly, '71, and senator, '76. He was elected member of
the Academy,
'78. In addition to his historical works he contributed
to le Siecle,
la Liberté de penser, and l'Encyclopédie Nouvelle,
etc. Died 14
Dec. 1883.
Martin (Louis),
author of Les Evangiles Sans Dieu (called by Victor
Hugo cette
noble page), Paris, 1887, describes himself as an Atheist
Socialist.
Martin (Louis
Auguste). French writer, b. Paris, 25 April, 1811,
editor of the
Morale Independante and member of the Institute of
Geneva. For his
True and False Catholics ('58), he was fined three
thousand francs
and imprisoned for six months. He published the
Annuaire
Philosophique. Several of his works are placed on the Roman
Index. Died
Paris, 6 April, 1875.
Martinaud (M.),
an ex-abbé who refused ordination, and wrote Letters
of a young
priest, who is an Atheist and Materialist, to his bishop,
Paris, 1868, in
which he says, "Religion is the infancy of peoples,
Atheism their
maturity."
Martineau
(Harriet), b. Norwich 12 June, 1803, descended from
a Huguenot
family. Brought up as a Unitarian, she began writing
Devotional
Exercises for Young Persons, and, taking to literature
as a means of
living, distinguished herself by popularisations
of political
economy. The Letters on the Laws of Man's Nature and
Development,
which passed between her and H. G. Atkinson, appeared in
'51, and
disclosed her advance to the Positivist school of Thought. In
'53 she issued
a condensed account of Comte's philosophy. She wrote
a History of
England during the Thirty Years' Peace, and numerous
other works.
Died at Ambleside 27 June, 1876. Her Autobiography,
published after
her death, shows the full extent of her unbelief.
Masquerier
(Lewis), American land reformer of Huguenot descent, b. 1
March, 1802.
Wrote The Sataniad, established Greenpoint Gazette,
and contributed
to the Boston Investigator. Died 7 Jan. 1888.
Massenet (Jules
Emile Fréderic), French musical composer, b. Montard,
12 May, 1842.
Has written a daring and popular oratorio on Marie
Magdeleine, and
an opera, Herodiade.
Massey
(Gerald), poet and archæologist, b. of poor parents at
Tring, in
Herts, 29 May, 1828. At eight years of age he was sent
to a factory to
earn a miserable pittance. At the age of fifteen
he came to
London as an errand boy, read all that came in his way,
and became a
Freethinker and political reformer. Inspired by the
men of '48, he
started The Spirit of Freedom, '49. It cost him five
situations in
eleven months. In '53 his Ballad of Babe Christabel,
with other
Lyrical Poems at once gave him position as a poet of fine
taste and
sensibility. Mr. Massey devoted himself to the study of
Egyptology, the
result of which is seen in his Book of Beginnings
and Natural
Genesis, '81-83, in which he shows the mythical nature of
Christianity.
Mr. Massey has also lectured widely on such subjects as
Why Don't God
Kill the Devil? The Historical Jesus and the Mythical
Christ, The
Devil of Darkness in the Light of Evolution, The Coming
Religion, etc.
His poems are being re-published under the title My
Lyrical Life.
Massey (James).
See Tyssot. (S.)
Massol (Marie
Alexandre), French writer, b. Beziers, 18 March,
1805. He
studied under Raspail, went to Paris in '30 and became a Saint
Simonian. In
'48 he wrote on Lamennais' La Réforme, and on the Voix
du Peuple with
his friend Proudhon, to whom he became executor. In
'65 he
established La Morale Independante with the object of showing
morality had
nothing to do with theology. Died at Paris 20 April, 1875.
Maubert de
Gouvest (Jean Henri), French writer, b. Rouen, 20
Nov. 1721.
Brought up as a monk, he fled and took service in the Saxon
army. He was
thrown into prison by the King of Poland, but the Papal
nuncio procured
his release on condition of retaking his habit. This
he did and went
to Rome to be relieved of his vows. Failing this
he went to
Switzerland and England, where he was well received by
Lord
Bolingbroke. He published Lettres Iroquoises, Irocopolis, 1752,
and other
anonymous works. At Frankfort in 1764 he was arrested as
a fugitive monk
and vagabond, and was imprisoned eleven months. Died
at Altona, 21
Nov. 1767.
Maudsley
(Henry), M.D., b. near Giggleswick, Yorkshire, 5
Feb. 1835.
Educated at London University, where he graduated
M.D. in 1857.
Taking mental pathology as his speciality, he soon
reached
eminence in his profession. From '69-'79 he was professor
of medical
jurisprudence at University College, London. His works on
The Physiology
and Pathology of the Mind ('67), Body and Mind ('70),
Responsibility
in Mental Disease ('73), and Body and Will ('83) have
attracted much
attention. His Natural Laws and Supernatural Seemings
('80) is a
powerful exposure of the essence of all superstition.
Mauvillon
(Jakob von), b. Leipzig, 8 March, 1743. Though feeble in
body, he had a
penchant for the army, and joined the engineer corps of
Hanover, and
afterwards became lieutenant-colonel in the service of the
Duke of
Brunswick. A friend and admirer of Mirabeau, he defended the
French
Revolution in Germany. He wrote anonymously Paradoxes Moraux
(Amsterdam, 1768)
and The Only True System of the Christian Religion
(Berlin, 1787),
at first composed under the title of False Reasonings
of the
Christian Religion. Died in Brunswick, 11 Jan. 1794.
Mazzini
(Giuseppe), Italian patriot, b. Genoa, 28 June 1808. In '26 he
graduated
LL.D., in the University of Genoa, and plunged into politics,
becoming the
leader of Young Italy, with the object of uniting the
nation.
Condemned to death in '33, he went to Switzerland and was
expelled, then
came to England in '37. In '48 he returned, and in March
'49 was made
triumvir of Rome with Saffi and Armellini. Compelled,
after a
desperate resistance, to retire, he returned to London. He
wrote in the
Westminster Review and other periodicals and his works are
numerous though
mostly of a political character. They are distinguished
by
highmindedness, love of toleration and eloquence. Carlyle called
Mazzini "a
man of genius and virtue, a man of sterling veracity,
humanity and
nobleness of mind." Died at Pisa 10 March, 1872. He was
a Deist.
Meissner
(Alfred), German poet, b. Teplitz, 15 Oct. 1822. Has written
Ziska, an epic
poem, The Son of Atta Troll, Recollections of Heine,
etc. Died
Teplitz, 20 May, 1885.
Meister
(Jacques Henri), Swiss writer, b. Bückeburg, 6
Aug. 1744.
Intended for a religious career, he went to France, and
became
acquainted with D'Holbach and Diderot, of whom he wrote a short
life, and was
secretary to Grimm. He wrote the Origin of Religious
Principles,
1762, and Natural Morality, 1787.
Menard (Louis),
French author and painter, b. Paris, 1822. In
'48-'49 he
wrote Prologue of a Revolution, for which he was obliged
to leave
France. Has written on Morality before the Philosophers,
'60, Studies on
the Origin of Christianity, '67, and Freethinkers'
Religious
Catechism, '75.
Mendoza (Diego
Hurtado de), famous and learned Spanish author, b. of
distinguished
family, Granada, 1503. Intended for the church, he
studied Latin,
Greek, Arabic, and Hebrew, but on leaving the university
he joined the
army. At school he wrote his well known comic novel,
Lazarillo de
Tormes, which was condemned by the Inquisition. Sent
on an embassy
to Pope Paul III., the latter was greatly shocked at
his audacity
and vehemence of speech. His chief work is his History
of the Moorish
Wars, which remained unprinted thirty years, through
the intolerant
policy of Philip II. Mendoza's satires and burlesques
were also
prohibited by the Inquisition. He commented Aristotle and
translated his
Mechanics. Died at Valladolid, April, 1575.
Mendum (Josiah
P.), publisher and proprietor of the Boston
Investigator,
b. Kennebunk, Maine, 7 July, 1811. He became a printer,
and in 1833
became acquainted with Abner Kneeland and after his
imprisonment
engaged to print the Investigator, and when Kneeland
left Boston for
the West to recruit his health, he carried on the
paper together
with Mr. Horace Seaver. Mr. Mendum was one of the
founders of the
Paine Memorial Hall, Boston, and a chief support of
Freethought in
that city.
Mentelle
(Edme), French geographer and historian, b. Paris, 11
Oct. 1730.
Studied at the College de Beauvais under Crévier. His
Précis de
l'Histoire des Hébreux (1798), and Précis de l'Histoire
Universelle are
thoroughly anti-Christian. He doubted if Jesus ever
existed. He was
a member of the Institute and Chevalier of the Legion
of Honor. Died
at Paris, 28 Dec. 1815.
Mercier (L.
A.), author of La Libre Pensée, Brussels, 1879.
Meredith (Evan
Powell), Welsh writer, author of The Prophet of Nazareth
(1864), an able
work exposing the prophecies of Jesus, and Amphilogia,
a reply in to
the Bishop of Landaff and the Rev. J. F. Francklin, '67.
Meredith
(George), philosophical poet and novelist, b. Hampshire,
1828, and
educated partly on the Continent. Intended for the law,
he adopted
literature in preference. He first appeared as a poet
with Poems
('51). Of his powerful novels we mention the Ordeal of
Richard Feveril
('59), Emilia in England ('64), now Sandra Belloni,
with Vittoria
('66) for a sequel. Rhoda Fleming, Beauchamp's Career
('76), The
Egoist ('79), The Tragic Comedians ('81) and Diana of
the Crossways
('85). Deep thought and fine grace characterise his
writings. As a
poet Mr. Meredith is not popular, but his volumes of
verse are
marked by the highest qualities, and give him a place apart
from the throng
of contemporary singers.
Merimee
(Prosper), learned French writer, b. Paris, 28 Sept. 1808,
author of
numerous essays and romances. Was made Inspector General
of Historic
Monuments and was admitted to the Academy in '44. In his
anonymous
brochure on H(enri) B(eyle), Eleutheropolis (Brussels), '64,
there is an
open profession of Atheism. Died at Cannes, 23 Sept. 1870.
Merritt
(Henry), English painter and writer, b. Oxford, 8 June,
1822. On coming
to London he lived with Mr. Holyoake, and contributed
to the Reasoner,
using the signature "Christopher." He wrote on Dirt
and Pictures
and Robert Dalby and his World of Troubles, etc. Died
in London, 10
July, 1877.
Meslier or
Mellier (Jean), curé of Etrepigny, Champagne, b. Mazerny,
Rethelois, 15
June, 1664. Died in 1729. After his death a will was
discovered of
which he had made three copies, in which he repudiated
Christianity
and requested to be buried in his own garden. His
property he
left to his parishioners. Voltaire published it under
the title of
Extract from the sentiments of Jean Meslier. To Meslier
has been
attributed the work entitled Le Bon Sens, written by Baron
D'Holbach. Le
Testament de Jean Meslier has been published in three
volumes at
Amsterdam, 1864, preceded by a study by Rudolf Charles
(R. C. d'Ablaing
van Giessenburg). It calls in question all the dogmas
of
Christianity. Anacharsis Clootz proposed to the National Convention
to erect a
statue to this "honest priest."
Metchnikov
(Léon), Russian writer in French; author of a work on
Japan and of
able articles, notably one on Christian Communion in
the Revue
Internationale des Sciences Biologiques, tome 12.
Metrodorus of
Lampsacus. Greek philosopher, b. 330 B.C., a disciple
and intimate
friend of Epicurus. He wrote numerous works, the titles
of which are
preserved by Diogenes Laertius. Died B.C. 277.
Mettrie, see La
Mettrie.
Meunier (Amédée
Victor), French writer, b. Paris, 2 May, 1817. Has
done much to
popularise science by his Scientific Essays, 1851-58,
the Ancestors
of Adam, '75, etc.
Meyer
(Lodewijk), a Dutch physician, a friend and follower of
Spinoza, who
published Exercitatio Paradoxa on the philosophical
interpretation
of scripture, Eleutheropoli (Amst.), 1666. This has
been wrongly
attributed to Spinoza. It was translated into Dutch
in 1667. He is
also credited with Lucii Antistic Constantes, de
jure
ecclesiasticorum. Alethopoli (Amst.), 1665. This work is also
attributed to
another writer, viz. P. de la Court.
Mialhe
(Hippolyte), French writer, b. Roquecourbe (Tarn), 1834. From
'60-62 he was
with the French army of occupation at Rome. He has
organised
federations of Freethinkers in France, edited L'Union
des
Libres-Penseurs, and has written Mémoires d'un libre Penseur
(Nevers, 1888).
Michelet
(Jules), French historian, b. Paris, 21 Aug. 1798. Became
a Professor of
History in 1821. Has written a History of France and
of the French
Revolution; The Jesuits, with his friend Quinet, '43;
The Priest,
Woman and the Family, '44; The Sorceress, dealing with
witchcraft in
the Middle Ages, '62; The Bible of Humanity, '64. His
lectures were
interdicted by the Government of Louis Phillippe, and
after the coup
d'état he was deprived of his chair. All Michelet's
works glow with
eloquence and imagination. He never forgot that he
was a
republican and Freethinker of the nineteenth century. Died at
Hyères, 9 Feb.
1874.
Michelet (Karl
Ludwig), German philosopher of French family, b. Berlin,
4 Dec. 1801. In
'29 he became Professor of Philosophy. A disciple
of Hegel, he
edited his master's works, '32. His principle work is A
System of
Philosophy as an Exact Science, '76-81. He has also written
on the relation
of Herbert Spencer to German philosophy.
Middleton
(Conyers), Freethinking clergyman, b. York 1683. His Letters
from Rome,
1729, showed how much Roman Christianity had borrowed from
Paganism, and
his Free Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers supposed
to have
subsisted in the Christian Church, 1749, was a severe blow
to hitherto
received "Christian Evidences." He also wrote a classic
Life of Cicero.
Died at Hildersham near Cambridge, 28 July, 1750.
Mignardi (G.),
Italian writer, who in 1884 published Memorie di un
Nuovo Credente
(Memoirs of a New Believer).
Milelli
(Domenico), Italian poet, b. Catanzaro, Feb. 1841. His family
intended to
make him a priest, but he turned out a rank Pagan, as
may be seen in
his Odi Pagane, '79, Canzonieri, '84, and other works.
Mill (James),
philosopher and historian, b. Northwaterbridge, Montrose,
6 April, 1773.
Studied at Edinburgh, and distinguished himself by his
attainments in
Greek and moral philosophy. He was licensed as preacher
in the Scotch
Church, but removed to London in 1800, and became editor
of the Literary
Review, and contributed to the reviews. He published,
'17-'19, his
History of British India. He contributed many articles to
the fifth
edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. A friend of Bentham,
he wrote
largely in the Westminster Review, and did much to forward
the views of
Philosophic Radicalism. His Analysis of the Human Mind,
'39, is a
profound work. In religion he was a complete sceptic. Reading
Bishop Butler's
Analogy made him an Atheist. Died 23 June, 1836.
Mill (John
Stuart), eminent English writer, son of the preceding,
b. London, 20
May, 1806. Educated by his father without religion, he
became clerk in
the East India House, and early in life contributed to
the Westminster
and Edinburgh Reviews. Of the first he became joint
editor in '35.
His System of Logic, '43, first made him generally
known. This was
followed by his Principles of Political Economy. In
'59 appeared
his small but valuable treatise On Liberty, in which he
defends the
unrestricted free discussion of religion. Among subsequent
works were
Utilitarianism, '63; Auguste Comte and Positivism, '67;
Examination of
Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy '65; Dissertations
and
Discussions, '59-'75; and the Subjection of Women, '69. In '65
he was elected
to Parliament for Westminster, but lost his seat in
'68. In '67 he
was chosen Rector of St. Andrews, and delivered the
students an
able address. Prof. Bain says "in everything characteristic
of the creed of
Christendom he was a thorough-going negationist. He
admitted
neither its truth nor its utility." Died at Avignon, 8 May,
1873, leaving
behind his interesting Autobiography and three essays on
"Nature,"
"Theism," and "Religion."
Mille
(Constantin), Roumanian writer, b. at Bucharest, educated at
Paris. He
lectured at Jassy and Bucharest on the History of Philosophy,
from a
Materialistic point of view. He was also active with Codreano,
and after the
latter's death ('77), in spreading Socialism. Millé
contributes to
the Rivista Sociala and the Vütorul, edited by
C. Pilitis.
Milliere (Jean
Baptiste), Socialist, b. of poor parents, Lamarche
(Côte d'Or), 13
Dec. 1817. He became an advocate, and founded the
Proletaire at
Clermont Ferrand. For writing Revolutionary Studies he
was, after the
coup d'état, banished to Algeria until the amnesty of
'59. In '69
Millière started, with Rochefort, the Marseillaise, of
which he became
one of the principal directors. At the election for the
National
Assembly he was elected for Paris by 73,000 votes. Although
he took no part
in the Commune, but sought to act as an intermediary,
he was arrested
and summarily shot near the Pantheon, Paris, 26 May,
1871. He died
crying "Vive l'Humanité."
Mirabaud (Jean
Baptiste de), French writer, b. Paris, 1675. He
translated
Tasso and Ariosto, and became perpetual secretary to the
French Academy.
He wrote Opinions of the Ancients on the Jews, a
Critical
Examination of the New Testament, (published under the name
of Fréret), The
World: its Origin and Antiquity, 1751, Sentiments of
a Philosopher
on the Nature of the Soul inserted in the collection
entitled
Nouvelle libertés de Penser, Amst. (Paris) 1743. The System
of Nature,
attributed to Mirabaud, was written by d'Holbach. Mirabaud
died 24 June,
1760.
Mirabeau
(Honoré Gabriel Riquetti Comte de), French statesman
and orator, b.
at the Chateau de Bignon (Loiret) 9 March, 1749. He
inherited a
passionate nature, a frank strong will, generous temper,
and a mind of
prodigious activity. He entered the army in 1767,
but by an
amorous intrigue provoked the ire of his father, by whom
he was more
than once imprisoned. In 1776 he went to Amsterdam and
employed
himself in literary work. In 1783 appeared anonymously his
Erotika
Biblion, dealing with the obscenity of the Bible. In 1786 he
was sent to
Berlin, where he met Frederick and collected materials
for his work on
The Prussian Monarchy. He returned to the opening of
the States
General and soon became leader of the Revolution, being
in Jan. 1791
chosen President of the National Assembly. He advocated
the abolition
of the double aristocracy of Lords and bishops, the
spoliation of
the Church and the National Guard. Carlyle calls him
"far the
strongest, best practical intellect of that time." He died
2 April, 1791.
Among his last words were, "Envelop me with perfumes
and crown me
with flowers that I may pass away into everlasting sleep."
Miranda (Don
Francisco). South American patriot and general, b. Caracas
1750, aided the
Americans in their War of Independence, tried to free
Guatimalaus
from the Spanish, allied himself to the Girondins and
became second
in command in the army of Dumouriez. He was a friend
of Thomas
Paine. In 1806-11 he was engaged seeking to free Peru from
the Spaniards,
by whom he was made prisoner, and died in a dungeon
at Cadiz, 16
Jan. 1816. It was said General Miranda made a sceptic
of James Mill.
Miron. See
Morin (André Saturnin.)
Mitchell (J.
Barr), Dr., anonymous author of Dates and Data (1876)
and Chrestos; a
Religious Epithet (1880). Dr. Mitchell has also
written in the
National Reformer, using his initials only.
Mitchell
(Logan), author of Lectures published as The Christian
Mythology
Unveiled. This work was also issued under the title
Superstition
Besieged. It is said that Mitchell committed suicide in
Nov. 1841. He
left by his will a sum of £500 to any bookseller who had
the courage to
publish his book. It was first published by B. Cousens,
and was
republished in '81.
Mittermaier
(Karl Josef Anton von), German jurisconsult, b. Munich,
5 Aug. 1787.
Studied law and medicine at Landshut, where he became
professor. His
works on Law gained him a high reputation. He obtained
a chair at the
Heidelberg University. In 1831 he represented Baden in
Parliament. He
advocated the unity of Germany and took an active part
in the Radical
movement of '48. His writings are all in the direction
of freedom.
Died 28 Aug. 1867.
Mittie
(Stanilas), in 1789 proposed the taking of church bells to make
money and
cannon, and during the revolution distinguished himself by
other
anti-clerical suggestions. Died 1816.
Mocenicus
(Philippus), Archbishop of Nicosia, Cyprus, a Venetian
philosopher,
whose heretical Contemplations were printed at Geneva,
1588, with the
Peripatetic Question of Cæsalpinus and the books of
Telesio on The
Nature of Things in the volume entitled Tractationum
Philosophicarum.
Moleschott
(Jacob), scientific Materialist, b. of Dutch parents at 's
Hertogenbosch,
9 Aug. 1822; studied at Heidelburg where he graduated
M.D. Became
Professor of Physiology at Zurich and afterwards at
Turin. Becoming
a naturalised Italian he was in '76 made a senator,
and in '78
Professor of Physiology at the University of Rome. He has
written
Circulation of Life, Light and Life, Physiological Sketches,
and other
medical and scientific works. Lange calls him "the father
of the modern
Materialistic movement."
Molesworth (Sir
William), statesman and man of letters, the eighth
baronet of his
family, b. Cornwall, 23 May, 1810. In '32 he was
returned M.P.
for East Cornwall, and from '37-41 sat for Leeds. In
'53 he was
First Commissioner of Public Works, and in '55 was Secretary
for the
Colonies. He was for some time proprietor and conductor of the
Westminster
Review, in which he wrote many articles. A noble edition
of Hobbes was
produced at his expense, '39-45, and he contributed to
the support of
Auguste Comte. Died 22 Oct. 1855.
Mommsen
(Theodor), historian, b. Garding (Schleswig), 30
Nov. 1817.
Studied at Kiel, and travelled from '44 to 47. He became
Professor of
Law of Leipsic, Zürich and Berlin. Is best known by his
History of
Rome, '53-85, a work of great research and suggestiveness
in which he
expresses the opinion that it is doubtful if the world
was improved by
Christianity.
Monboddo
(Lord). See Burnett (James).
Monge
(Gaspard), French scientist, b. at Beaume, 10 May 1746. Taught
physics and
mathematics at the military school of Mezieres, became a
member of the
Academy of Sciences in 1780, and through the influence
of Condorcet
was made Minister of the Marine in 1792. He was one of
the founders of
the Polytechnic School. Napoleon made him a senator,
created him
Count of Pelusium, and gave him an estate for his many
services to the
French nation. On the return of the Bourbons he was
deprived of all
his emoluments. Died 28 July, 1818. Maréchal and
Lalande insert
his name in their list of Atheists.
Mongez
(Antoine), French archæologist, b. Lyons, 30 June
1747.
Distinguished by his studies, he became a member of the Academy
of Inscriptions
and of the Institute, before which he said "he had
the honor to be
an Atheist." He was one of the most ardent members of
the Convention,
and wrote many memoirs. Died at Paris, 30 July, 1835.
Monroe (J. R.),
Dr., editor and proprietor of the Ironclad Age,
b. Monmouth,
co. New Jersey, about 1825. In '50 he went to Rochford,
where he had a
good practice as a doctor. In '55 he started the
Rochford
Herald, and in July, '57, the Seymour Times. During the Civil
War he was
appointed surgeon to the 150th regiment, and after some
hard service
his own health broke down. In '75 Dr. Monroe published
his dramas and
poems in a volume. From this time his paper became
more
Freethought and less political. In April, '82, he removed to
Indianapolis,
Indiana, and changed the name to The Age, afterwards
Monroe's
Ironclad Age. Dr. Monroe is a clever writer and a modest man,
with a
remarkable fund of natural humor. Among his publications are
poems on The
Origin of Man, etc., Genesis Revised, and Holy Bible
Stories.
Montaigne
(Michel de), French philosophic essayist, b. at the family
castle in
Perigord, 28 Feb. 1533. He studied law and became a judge
at Bordeaux
about 1554. In 1580 he produced his famous "Essays,"
which indicate
a sprightly humor allied to a most independent
spirit. The
Essays, Hallam says, make in several respects an epoch in
literature.
Emerson says, "Montaigne is the frankest and honestest
of all
writers." Montaigne took as his motto: Que sçais-je? [What
know I?] and
said that all religious opinions are the result of
custom. Buckle
says, "Under the guise of a mere man of the world,
expressing
natural thoughts in common language, Montaigne concealed a
spirit of lofty
and audacious inquiry." Montaigne seems to have been
the first man
in Europe who doubted the sense and justice of burning
people for a
difference of opinion. His denunciation of the conduct of
the Christians
in America does him infinite honor. Died 13 Sept. 1592.
Monteil
(Charles François Louis Edgar), French journalist, b. Vire,
26 Jan. 1845.
Fought against the Empire, writing in Le Rappel. During
the Commune he
was secretary to Delescluze. For his Histoire d'un
Frère
Ignorantin, '74, he was prosecuted by the Christian Brothers,
and condemned
to one year's imprisonment, 2,000 francs fine, and 10,000
francs damages.
In '77 he wrote a Freethinker's Catechism, published
at Antwerp, and
in '79 an edition of La République Française. In '80
he was made a
member of the Municipal Council of Paris, and re-elected
in '84. In '83
he was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honor. He has
compiled an
excellent secular Manual of Instruction for schools.
Montesquieu
(Charles de Secondat), Baron, eminent French writer,
b. near
Bordeaux, 18 Jan. 1689. His first literary performance was
entitled Persian
Letters, 1721. In 1728 he was admitted a member of
the French
Academy, though opposed by Cardinal Fleury on the ground
that his
writings were dangerous to religion. His chief work is the
Spirit of Laws,
1748. This work was one of the first-fruits of the
positive spirit
in history and jurisprudence. The chapters on Slavery
are written in
a vein of masterly irony, which Voltaire pronounced
to be worthy of
Molière. Died 10 Feb. 1755.
Montgomery
(Edmund), Dr. philosopher, b. of Scotch parents, Edinburgh
1835. In youth
he lived at Frankfort, where he saw Schopenhauer,
and afterwards
attended at Heidelberg the lectures of Moleschott and
Kuno Fischer.
He became a friend of Feuerbach. He wrote in German and
published at
Munich in '71, The Kantian Theory of Knowledge refuted
from the
Empirical Standpoint. In '67 he published a small book On
the Formation
of so-called Cells in Animal Bodies. In '71 he went to
Texas and
prosecuted his scientific studies on life. He has written
in the Popular
Science Monthly, The Index, and The Open Court and
Mind. Dr.
Montgomery holds not only that there is no evidence of a God,
but that there
is evidence to the contrary.
Montgolfier
(Michel Joseph), aeronaut, b. Aug. 1740. He was the first
to ascend in an
air balloon, 5 June 1783. A friend of Delambre and
La Lalande, he
was on the testimony of this last an atheist. Died 26
June 1810.
Mook
(Friedrich) German writer, b. Bergzabern, 29 Sept. 1844, studied
philosophy and
theology at Tübingen, but gave up the latter to study
medicine. He
lived as a writer at Heidelberg and became lecturer to
a free
congregation at Nürenburg, and wrote a popular Life of Jesus,
published at
Zürich, '72-3. He travelled abroad and was drowned in
the river
Jordan, 13 Dec. 1880. His brother Kurt, b. 12 Feb. 1847,
is a physician
who has published some poems.
Moor (Edmund),
Major in the East Indian Company, author of the Hindu
Pantheon, 1810
and Oriental Fragments, '34. Died 1840.
Moreau
(Hégésippe), French poet, b. Paris 9, April 1810. A radical
and freethinker,
he fought in the barricades in '30. Wrote songs and
satires of
considerable merit, and a prose work entitled The Mistletoe
and the Oak.
His life, which was a continual struggle with misery,
terminated in a
hospital, 20 Dec. 1838. His works have been collected,
with an
introduction by Sainte-Beuve.
Moreau (Jacques
Joseph), Dr. of Tours, b. Montresor, 1804. He became a
distinguished
alienist of the materialist school, and wrote on Moral
Faculties from
a medical point of view, '36, and many physiological
works.
Morelly, French
socialist of the eighteenth century,
b.
Vitry-le-Français, author of a work called Code de la Nature,
sometimes
attributed to Diderot. It was published in 1755, and urges
that man should
find circumstances in which depravity is minimised.
Morgan
(Thomas), Welsh Deist, known by the title of his book as The
Moral
Philosopher, 1737. Was a Presbyterian, but was deposed for
Arianism about
1723, and practised medicine at Bristol. He edited
Radicati's
Dissertation on Death, 1731. His Moral Philosopher seeks
to substitute
morality for religion. He calls Moses "a more fabulous
romantic writer
than Homer or Ovid," and attacks the evidence of
miracles and
prophecy. This was supplemented by A Further Vindication
of Moral Truth
and Reason, 1739, and Superstition and Tyranny
Inconsistent
with Theocracy, 1740. He replied to his opponents over
the signature
"Philalethes." His last work was on Physico-Theology,
1741. Lechler
calls Morgan "the modern Marcion." Died at London,
14 Jan. 1743.
Morgan (Sir Thomas
Charles), M.D., b. 1783. Educated at Cambridge. In
1811 he was
made a baronet, and married Miss Sidney Owensen. A warm
friend of civil
and religious liberty and a sceptic, he is author of
Sketches of the
Philosophy of Life, '18, and the Philosophy of Morals,
'19. The
Examiner says, "He was never at a loss for a witty or wise
passage from
Rabelais or Bayle." Died 28 Aug. 1843.
Morin (André
Saturnin), French writer, b. Chatres, 28
Nov. 1807.
Brought up to the law, and became an advocate. In '30
he wrote
defending the revolution against the restoration. In '48
he was made
sous-prefet of Nogent. During the Empire he combated
vigorously for
Republicanism and Freethought, writing under the
signature
"Miron," in the Rationaliste of Geneva, the Libre Pensée
of Paris, the
Libero-pensiero of Milan, and other papers. He was
intimately
associated with Ausonio Franchi, Trezza, Stefanoni,
and the Italian
Freethinkers. His principal work is an Examination
of
Christianity, in three volumes, '62. His Jesus Reduced to his
True Value has
gone through several editions. His Essai de Critique
Religieuse,
'85, is an able work. M. Morin was one of the founders
of the
Bibliothèque Démocratique, to which he contributed several
anti-clerical
volumes, the one on Confession being translated into
English by Dr.
J. R. Beard. In '76 he was elected on the Municipal
Council of
Paris, where he brought forward the question of establishing
a crematorium.
Died at Paris, 5 July, 1888, and was cremated at Milan.
Morison (James
Augustus Cotter), English Positivist and man of letters,
b. London,
1831. Graduated at Lincoln Coll. Oxford, M.A., '59. In
'63 he
published the Life and Times of Saint Bernard. He was one of
the founders of
the Fortnightly Review, in which he wrote, as well as
in the Athenæum.
He contributed monographs on Gibbon and Macaulay to
Morley's
"Men of Letters" Series. In '86 he published his striking work
The Service of
Man, an Essay towards the Religion of the Future, which
shows that the
benefits of Christianity have been much exaggerated and
its evils
palpable. All his writings are earnest and thoughtful. He
collected books
and studied to write a History of France, which would
have been a
noble contribution to literature; but the possession of
a competence
seems to have weakened his industry, and he never did
justice to his
powers. Even the Service of Man was postponed until
he was no
longer able to complete it as he intended. Morison was a
brilliant
talker, and the centre of a wide circle of friends. George
Meredith
dedicated to him a volume of poems. Died at Hampstead,
26 Feb. 1888.
Morley (John),
English writer and statesman, b. Blackburn,
24 Dec. 1838,
educated at Oxford. Among his fellow students was
J.C. Morison.
He contributed to The Leader and the Saturday Review,
edited the
Morning Star, and the Fortnightly Review, '67-82, in which
appeared the
germs of most of his works, such as On Compromise,
Voltaire, '72;
Rousseau, '73; Diderot and the Encyclopædists
'78. During his
editorship important Freethought papers appeared in
that review.
From May, '80 till Aug. '83 he edited the Pall Mall
Gazette. Upon
the death of Ashton Dilke, M.P., he was elected
to Parliament
for Newcastle, and in Feb. '86 was appointed by
Mr. Gladstone
Chief Secretary for Ireland.
Morselli
(Enrico Agostino), Italian doctor and scientist, b. Modena,
1852. Has
written many anthropological works, notably one on Suicide
in the
International Scientific Series, and a study on "The Religion
of
Mazzini." He edits the Rivista di Filosofia Scientifica, and has
translated
Herbert Spencer on the past and future of religion.
Mortillet
(Louis Laurent Gabriel de), French scientist, b. Meylan
(Isère), 29
Aug. 1821, and was educated by Jesuits. Condemned in
'49 for his
political writings he took refuge in Switzerland. He
has done much
to promote prehistoric studies in France. Has written
Materials to
serve for the positive and philosophical history of man,
'64. The Sign
of the Cross before Christianity, '66, Contribution
to the History
of Superstition, and Prehistoric Antiquity of Man,
'82. He
contributed to the Revue Indépendante, Pensée Nouvelle,
etc. M. de
Mortillet is curator of the Museum of St. Germain and was
elected Deputy
in 1885.
Moss (Arthur
B.), lecturer and writer, b. 8 May, 1855. Has written
numerous pamphlets,
a number of which are collected in Waves of
Freethought,
'85. Others are Nature and the Gods, Man and the Lower
Animals, Two
Revelations, etc. Mr. Moss has been a contributor to
the Secular
Chronicle, Secular Review, Freethinker, Truthseeker,
and other
journals, and has had a written debate on "Was Jesus God
or Man." A
School Board officer, he was for a time prohibited from
lecturing on
Sunday. A collection of his Lectures and Essays has been
published,
1889.
Mothe Le Vayer.
See La Mothe Le Vayer.
Mott
(Lucretia), American reformer, nee Coffin, b. Nantucket, 3
Jan. 1793. She
was a Quakeress, but on the division of the Society
in 1827 went
with the party who preferred conscience to revelation. A
strong opponent
of slavery, she took an active part in the abolitionist
movement. She
was delegated to the World's Anti-slavery Convention
in London in
1840, but excluded on account of her sex. A friend of
Mrs. Rose and
Mrs. Stanton. Took an active part in Women's Rights
conventions.
Died at Philadelphia, 11 Nov. 1880.
Muhammad ibn al
Hudail al Basri, philosopher of Asia Minor, founder
of the
Muhammadan Freethinking sect of Mutazilah, b. about 757. Died
about 849.
Muhammad Ibn
Muhammad Ibn Tarkhan (Abu Nasr.) See Alpharabius.
Muhammad Ibn
Yahya Ibn Bajjat. See Avempace.
Muhammad Jalal
ed din. See Akbar.
Muller (Dr. H.
C.) Dutch writer, b. 31 Oct. 1855. Has contributed
good articles
to de Dageraad (the Daybreak), and is now teacher of
modern Greek at
the University of Amsterdam.
Murger (Henri),
French author, b. Paris, 1822, contributed to the Revue
des Deux
Mondes, tales poems and dramas. In his poem Le Testament in
"Winter
Nights" he says in answer to the inquiring priest "Reponds
lui que j'ai lu
Voltaire." His most popular work is entitled Scenes
of Bohemian
Life. Died Paris, 28 Jan. 1861.
Musset (Louis
Charles Alfred de), French poet, b. Paris, 11
Nov. 1810.
Before the age of twenty he became one of the leaders of the
Romantic
school. His prose romance, Confession d'un Enfant du Siècle,
'36, exhibits
his intellectual development and pessimistic moods. Among
his finest
works are four poems entitled Nuits. He contributed to
the Revue des
Deux Mondes, and was admitted into the Academy in
'52. Died at
Paris 1 May, 1857.
Naber (Samuel
Adriaan), learned Dutch writer, b. Gravenhage, 16 July,
1828. Studied
at Leyden and became rector of the Haarlem gymnasium,
and head
teacher at the Amsterdam Athenæum. He has edited a journal
of literature,
and is joint author with Dr. A. Pierson of Verisimilia
(1886), a Latin
work showing the fragmentary and disjointed character
of the Epistles
attributed to Paul.
Nachtigal
(Gustav.), Dr., German traveller, b. Eichstadt, 23
Feb. 1834. He
studied medicine, went to Algiers and Tunis, became
private
physician to the Bey of Tunis, explored North Africa, and
wrote an
account thereof, Sahara und Sudan. He became German Consul
General at
Tunis, and died 20 April, 1885.
Naigeon
(Jacques André), French atheist, b. Dijon 1728. At first an
art student, he
became a disciple and imitator of Diderot. He became
copyist to and
collaborator with Holbach and conveyed his works to
Amsterdam to be
printed. He contributed to the Encyclopédie, notably
the articles
Ame and Unitaires and composed the Militaire Philosophe,
or difficulties
on religion proposed to Father Malebranche, 1768. This
was his first
work, the last chapter being written by Holbach. He
took some share
in several of the works of that writer, notably in the
Theologie
Portative. He published the Recuéil Philosophique, 2 vols.,
Londres (Amst.),
1770; edited Holbach's Essay on Prejudices and his
Morale
Universelle. He also edited the works of Diderot, the essays
of Montaigne
and a translation of Toland's philosophical letters. His
principal work
is the Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Philosophy in
the
Encyclopédie Méthodique (Paris 1791-94.) He addressed the National
Assembly on
Liberty of Opinion, 1790, and asked them to withhold
the name of God
and religion from their declaration of the rights of
man. Naigeon
was of estimable character. Died at Paris, 28 Feb. 1810.
Naquet (Joseph
Alfred). French materialist, b. Carpentras, 6 Oct. 1834,
became M.D. in
'59. In '67 he received fifteen months imprisonment for
belonging to a
secret society. He founded, with M. Regnard, the Revue
Encyclopédique,
which was suppressed at once for containing an attack
on theism. In
'69 he issued a work on Religion, Property, and Family,
which was
seized and the author condemned to four months imprisonment,
a fine of five
hundred francs, and the perpetual interdict of civil
rights. He
represented Vaucluse in the National Assembly, where he
has voted with
the extreme left. He was re-elected in '81. The new
law of divorce
in France has been passed chiefly through M. Naquet's
energetic
advocacy. In '83 he was elected to the Senate, and of late
has
distinguished himself by his advocacy of General Boulanger.
Nascimento
(Francisco Manuel do). Portuguese poet, b. Lisbon, 23
Dec, 1734. He
entered the Church, but having translated Molière's
Tartuffe, was
accused of heresy (1778), and had to fly for his life
from the
Inquisition. He wrote many poems and satires under the name of
"Filinto
Elysio." Died 25 Feb. 1819.
Navez
(Napoleon), Belgian Freethinker, president of La Libre Pensée,
of Antwerp, and
active member of the Council of the International
Federation of
Freethinkers.
Nelson
(Gustave), a writer in the New York Truthseeker, conjectured to
be the author
of Bible Myths and their Parallels in other Religions,
a large and
learned work, showing how much of Christianity has been
taken from
Paganism.
Newcomb
(Simon), LL.D., American astronomer, b. Wallace, (Nova
Scotia), 12
March, 1835. Went to the United States in '53, and was
appointed
computor on the Nautical Almanack. In '77 he became senior
professor of
mathematics in the U. S. navy. He has been associated
with the
equipment of the Lick observatory, and has written many
works on
mathematics and astronomy, as well as Principles of Political
Economy, 1885.
Newman (Francis
William) brother of Cardinal Newman, b. London
1805. Educated
at Oxford, he was elected to a fellowship at Balliol
College '26,
but resigned in '30, being unable conscientiously to
comply with the
regulations of the Test Act then in force. He then
went to Bagdad
with the object of assisting in a Christian mission,
but his further
studies convinced him he could not conscientiously
undertake the
work. He returned to England and became classical
teacher in
Bristol College, and subsequently Latin Professor at
London
University. In The Soul: its Sorrows and Aspirations, '49,
he states his
Theistic position, and in Phases of Faith, '50, he
explains how he
came to give up Christianity. He has also written A
History of the
Hebrew Monarchy, '47, Theism: Doctrinal and Practical,
'58, and a
number of Scott's tracts on the Defective Morality of
the New
Testament, the Historical Depravation of Christianity, the
Religious
Weakness of Protestantism, etc. Also Religion not History,
'77; What is
Christianity without Christ? '81; Christianity in its
Cradle, '84;
and Life after Death, '86.
Neymann
(Clara), German American Freethought lecturess, friend and
colleague of
Frau Hedwig Henrich Wilhelmi.
Nicholson
(William), English writer on chemistry and natural
philosophy, b.
London 1753. He went to India at an early age, and upon
returning
settled at London as a Mathematical teacher. He published
useful
introductions to chemistry and natural philosophy. Conducted
the British
Encyclopedia, and the Journal of Natural Philosophy. He
also wrote The
Doubts of the Infidels, submitted to the Bench of
Bishops by a
weak Christian, 1781, a work republished by Carlile and
also by Watson.
He died in poor circumstances 21 May, 1815.
Nicolai
(Christoph Friedrich), German writer, b. Berlin, 18 March,
1733. A friend
of Lessing, and Moses Mendelssohn; he was noted
for founding
"The Universal German Library." He wrote anecdotes of
Friedrich II.,
and many other works. Died at Berlin, 8 Jan. 1811.
Nietzsche
(Friedrich Wilhelm), German writer, b. Lutzen, 15 Oct. 1844,
author of
sketches of Strauss, Schopenhauer, and Wagner, and of
Morgenröthe,
and other philosophical works. Died 1889.
Nieuwenhuis
(Ferdinand Jakob Domela), Dutch publicist, b. Utrecht,
3 May, 1848. At
first a minister of the Lutheran church, on Nov. 25,
'77, he told
his congregation that he had ceased to believe in
Christianity,
and as an honest man resigned. He then contributed
to De Banier
(Banner) de Dageraad (Dawn) and de Vragen des Tijds
(Questions of
the time.) On 1st March, '79 he started a Socialist
paper Recht
voor Allen, now an important daily organ of Socialism and
Freethought.
His principle writings are--With Jesus, For or against
Socialism, The
Religious Oath Question, The Religion of Reason,
The Religion of
Humanity. On Jan. 19, '87, he was sentenced to one
years' solitary
confinement for an article he had not written, and
was harshly
treated till upon pressure of public opinion, he was
liberated 30
Aug. 1887. He is now member of the Dutch Parliament.
Noeldeke
(Theodor), German Orientalist, b. Harburg, 2 March,
1836. Studied
at Gottingen, Vienna, Leyden, and Berlin, and has been
professor of
oriental studies at Gottingen, Kiel, and Strasburg. He
has written a
History of the Koran, '56; a Life of Mahomet, '63; and
a Literary
History of the Old Testament, which has been translated
into French by
MM. Derembourg and J. Soury, '73.
Noire (Ludwig),
German monist, b. 26 March, 1829. Studied at Geissen,
and became a
teacher at Mainz. His works show the influence of
Spinoza and
Schopenhauer. He is the author of Aphorisms on the Monist
philosophy,
'77, and a work on the Origin of Speech, '77. He contends
that language
originates in instinctive sounds accompanying will in
associative
actions. Died 26 March, 1889.
Noorthouck
(John), author of a History of London, 1773, and an
Historical and
Classical Dictionary, 1776. Has been credited with
the Life of the
Man After God's Own Heart. See Annet.
Nordau (Max
Simon), b. of Jewish parents at Pesth, 29 July, 1849. He
became a
physician in '73. He has written several books of travels
and made some
noise by his trenchant work on Convential Lies of our
Civilisation.
He has since written on The Sickness of the Century.
Nork (Felix).
See Korn (Selig).
Nott (Josiah
Clark), Dr., American ethnologist, b. Columbia, South
Carolina, 24
March, 1804. He wrote The Physical History of the Jewish
Race, Types of
Mankind, '54, and Indigenous Races of the Earth, '55;
the last two
conjointly with G. R. Gliddon, and with the object of
disproving the
theory of the unity of the human race. Died at Mobile,
31 March, 1873.
Noun (Paul),
French author of The Scientific Errors of the Bible, 1881.
Noyes (Thomas
Herbert), author of Hymns of Modern Man, 1870.
Nunez (Rafael),
President of Columbia, b. Carthagena, 28 Sept. 1825. He
has written
many poems and political articles, and in philosophy is
a follower of
Mill and Spencer.
Nuytz (Louis
André). See Andre-Nuytz.
Nystrom (Anton
Christen), Dr. Swedish Positivist, b. 15
Feb. 1842.
Studied at Upsala and became a medical doctor in Lund,
'68. He served
as assistant and field doctor in the Dano-Prussian
war of '67, and
now practises an alienist in Stockholm, where he has
established a
Positivist Society and Workmen's Institute. Has written
a History of
Civilisation.
Ocellus
Lucanus, early Greek philosopher, who maintained the
eternity of the
cosmos. An edition of his work was published with a
translation by
the Marquis d'Argens, and Thomas Taylor published an
English
version.
Ochino
(Bernardino Tommasini), Italian reformer, b. Sienna, 1487. A
popular
preacher, he was chosen general of the Capuchins. Converted to
the Reformation
by Jean Valdez, he had to fly to Geneva, 1542. Invited
to England by
Cranmer, he became prebend of Canterbury and preached
in London until
the accession of Mary, when he was expelled and went
to Zurich. Here
he became an Antitrinitarian, and was banished about
1562 for Thirty
Dialogues, in one of which he shows that neither in the
Bible nor the
Fathers is there any express prohibition of polygamy. He
went to Poland
and joined the Socinians, was banished thence also,
and died
Slaukau, Moravia, in 1564. Beza ascribes the misfortunes of
Ochinus, and
particularly the accidental death of his wife, to the
special
interposition of God on account of his erroneous opinions.
O'Connor
(Arthur, afterwards Condorcet), General, b. Mitchells, near
Bandon (Cork),
4 July, 1768. Joined the United Irishmen and went
to France to
negotiate for military aid. In May 1798 he was tried
for treason and
acquitted. He entered the French service and rose to
distinction. In
1807 he married Elisa, the only daughter of Condorcet,
whose name he
took, and whose works he edited. He also edited the
Journal of
Religious Freedom. Died at Bignon, 25 April, 1852.
O'Donoghue
(Alfred H.) Irish American counsellor at law, b. about
1840. Educated
for the Episcopal ministry at Trinity College, Dublin,
but became a
sceptic and published Theology and Mythology, an inquiry
into the claims
of Biblical inspiration and the supernatural element
in religion, at
New York, 1880.
Oest (Johann
Heinrich) German poet, b. Cassel 1727. Wrote poems
published at
Hamburg, 1751, and was accused of materialism.
Offen
(Benjamin), American Freethinker, b. in England, 1772. He
emigrated to
New York, where he became lecturer to the Society of
Moral
Philantropists at Tammany Hall. He wrote Biblical Criticism
and A Legacy to
the Friends of Free Discussion, and supported the
Correspondent,
Free Inquirer, and Boston Investigator. Died New York,
12 May, 1848.
Offray de la
Mettrie (Julian). See Lamettrie.
O'Keefe (J.
A.), M.D. Educated in Germany; author of an essay On
the Progress of
the Human Understanding, 1795, in which he speaks
disparagingly
of Christianity. He was a follower of Kant, and was
classed with
Living Authors of Great Britain in 1816.
O'Kelly (Edmund
de Pentheny), a descendant of the O'Kelly's; author
of
Consciousness, or the Age of Reason, 1853; Theological Papers,
published by
Holyoake; and Theology for the People, '55, a series of
short papers
suggestive of religious Theism.
Oken (Lorenz),
German morphologist and philosopher, b. Offenburg,
2 Aug. 1779. He
studied at Göttingen and became a privat-docent in
that
university. In a remarkable Sketch of Natural Philosophy, 1802,
he advanced a
scheme of evolution. He developed his system in a work
on Generation,
1805, and a Manual of Natural Philosophy, 1809. He
was professor
at Jena, but dismissed for his liberal views. From
'17 till '48 he
edited the scientific journal Isis. In '32 he became
a professor at
Zürich, where he died, 11 Aug. 1851.
Oliver
(William), M.D., of Bath, who was accused of Atheism. Died 1764.
Omar Khayyam.
See Khayyam.
Omboni
(Giovanni), Lombard naturalist, b. Abbiategrasso, 29 June,
1829. Is
professor of geology at Padua, and author of many scientific
works.
Onimus (Ernest
Nicolas Joseph), Dr., French Positivist, b. near
Mulhouse, 6
Dec. 1840. Studied medicine at Strasburg and Paris,
and wrote a
treatise on The Dynamical Theory of Heat in Biological
Sciences, 1866.
In '73 he was one of the jury of the Vienna Exhibition,
and obtained
the Cross of the Legion of Honor. Is author of the
Psychology in
the Plays of Shakespere, '78, and has written in the
Revue Positive
and other periodicals.
Oort
(Henricus), Dutch rationalist, b. Eemnes, 27 Dec. 1836. Studied
theology at
Leyden, and became teacher at Amsterdam. Has written many
works, of which
we mention The Worship of Baalim in Israel, translated
by Bp. Colenso,
1865, and The Bible for Young People, written with
Drs. Hooykaas
and Kuenen, and translated by P. H. Wickstead, 1873-79.
Orelli (Johann
Kaspar von), learned Swiss critic, b. Zürich,
13 Feb. 1789.
Edited many classics, and wrote a letter in favor of
Strauss at the
time when there was an outcry at his being appointed
Professor at
Zürich. Died 6 Jan. 1849.
Osborne
(Francis), English writer, b. Clucksand, Beds. 1589. Was an
adherent of
Cromwell in the Civil War. His Advice to a Son, 1656, was
popular though
much censured by the Puritans who drew up a complaint
against his
works and proposed to have them burnt, and an order was
passed 27 July,
1658, forbidding them to be sold. Died 1659.
Oscar (L.),
Swiss writer, author of Religion Traced Back to its
Source, Basel,
1874. He considers religion "a belief in conflict
with experience
and resting on exaggerated fancies" of animism and
mythology. One
of his chapters is entitled "The Crucifixion of the
Son of God as
Christian mythology."
Ossoli
(Countess d'). See Fuller (Margaret).
Oswald (Eugen),
German teacher in England. Author of many popular
school books,
and a Study of Positivism in England, 1884.
Oswald (Felix
Leopold), American writer, b. Belgium, 1845. Educated
as a physician,
he has devoted his attention to natural history,
and in pursuit
of his studies has travelled extensively. He has
contributed to
the Popular Science Monthly, The Truthseeker and other
journals, and
has published Summerland Sketches, or Rambles in the
Backwoods of
Mexico and Central America, '81; Physical Education,
'82; The
Secrets of the East, '83, which argues that Christianity
is derived from
Buddhism, and The Bible of Nature or the Principles
of Secularism,
'88. Dr. Oswald is now employed as Curator of Natural
History in
Brazil.
O'Toole (Adam
Duff), Irish Freethought martyr, burnt to death at
Hogging (now
College) Green, Dublin, in 1327. Holinshed says he
"denied
obstinatelie the incarnation of our savior, the trinitie
of persons in
the vnitie of the Godhead and the resurrection of the
flesh; as for
the Holie Scripture, he said it was but a fable; the
Virgin Marie he
affirmed to be a woman of dissolute life, and the
Apostolic see
erronious."
"Ouida,"
See Ramée (Louise de la).
Ouvry (Henry
Aimé), Col., translator of Feuchterslebens, Dietetics
of the Soul and
Rau's Unsectarian Catechism, and author of several
works on the
land question.
Overton
(Richard), English Republican, who wrote a satire on relics,
1642, and a
treatise on Man's Mortality (London, 1643, Amsterdam,
1644) a work
designed to show man is naturally mortal.
Owen (Robert),
social reformer, b. Newton, Montgomeryshire, Wales, 14
March, 1771. At
18 he was so distinguished by his business talents that
he became
partner in a cotton mill. In 1797 he married the daughter
of David Dale,
and soon afterwards became partner and sole manager
at New Lanark
Mills, where he built the first infant schools and
improved the dwellings
of the workmen. From 1810-15 he published New
Views on
Society, or, Essays on the Formation of Character. In '17 he
caused much
excitement by proclaiming that the religions of the world
were all false,
and that man was the creature of circumstances. In
'24 he went to
America and purchased New Harmony, Indiana, from the
Rappists to
found a new community, but the experiment was a failure,
as were also
others at Orbiston, Laner, and Queenswood, Hants. In
'28 he debated
at Cincinatti with Alex. Campbell on the Evidences of
Christianity.
He published a numerous series of tracts, Robert Owen's
Journal, and
The New Moral World, '35. He debated on his Social
System with the
Rev. J. H. Roebuck, R. Brindley, etc. As his mind
began to fail
he accepted the teachings of Spiritism. Died Newton,
17 Nov. 1858.
Owen profoundly influenced the thought of his time in
the direction
of social amelioration, and he is justly respected for
his energy,
integrity and disinterested philanthropy.
Owen (Robert
Dale), son of the above, b. Glasgow 9 Nov. 1800. Was
educated by his
father till 1820, when he was sent to Fellenberg's
school, near
Berne, Switzerland. In '25 he went to America to aid
in the efforts
to found a colony at New Harmony, Indiana. On the
failure of that
experiment he began with Frances Wright, in Nov. '28,
the publication
of the Free Inquirer, which was continued till
'32. In that
year he had a written discussion with O. Bachelor on
the existence
of God, and the authenticity of the Bible, in which he
ably championed
the Freethought cause. He wrote a number of tracts
of which we
mention Situations, 1839; Address on Free Inquiry, 1840;
Prossimo's
Experience, Consistency, Galileo and the Inquisition. He
was elected to
Congress in '43. After fifteen years of labor he
secured the
women of Indiana independent rights of property. He
became charge
d'affaires at Naples in '53. During the civil war he
strongly
advocated slave emancipation. Like his father he became a
Spiritualist.
Died at Lake George, 17 June, 1877.
Paalzow
(Christian Ludwig), German jurist, b. Osterburg (Altmark),
26 Nov. 1753,
translated Voltaire's commentaries on The Spirit of
the Laws and
Burigny's Examination of the Apologists of Christianity
(Leipzic,
1793), and wrote a History of Religious Cruelty (Mainz,
1800). Died 20
May, 1824.
Paepe (Cesar
de). See De Paepe.
Pagano
(Francisco Mario Saverio Antonio Carlo Pasquale). Italian
jurist,
philosopher and patriot, b. Brienza, 1748. He studied at
Naples, and
became the friend of Filangieri. Was made professor
of criminal law
in 1787. For his Political Essays in three volumes
(1783-92) he
was accused of Atheism and impiety. He wrote on Criminal
Process and a
work on God and Nature. Taking part in the Provisional
Government of
the Neapolitan Republic in 1791, he was taken prisoner
by the
royalists and executed 6 Oct. 1800.
Page (David).
Scotch geologist, b. 29 Aug. 1814. Author of
introductory
and advanced text-books of geology, which went through
many editions.
He gave advanced lectures in Edinburgh, and edited
Life Lights of
Song, '64. His Man Where, Whence, and Whither?,
'67, advocating
Darwinian views, made some stir in Scotland. He
became
professor of geology at Durham University. A friend of Robert
Chambers, he
was for some time credited with that writer's Vestiges
of Creation, in
the scientific details of which he assisted. Died at
Newcastle-on-Tyne,
9 March, 1879.
Paget (Violet).
English authoress, who, under the pen-name of "Vernon
Lee," has
written Studies of the Eighteenth Century in Italy and
Baldwin,
dialogues on views and aspirations 1886. Since '71 she has
lived chiefly
in Florence, and contributes to the principal reviews,
an article in
the Contemporary (May '83) on "Responsibilities of
Unbelief"
being particularly noticeable. Miss Paget's writings show
a cultivated
mind and true literary instinct.
Pageze (L.)
French Socialist; has written on the Concordat and the
Budget des
Cultes, '86, Separation of Church and State, '87, etc.
Paine (Thomas),
Deist, b. Thetford, Norfolk, 29 Jan., 1737. His father
was a Quaker
and staymaker, and Paine was brought up to the trade. He
left home while
still young, went to London and Sandwich, where he
married the
daughter of an exciseman, and entered the excise. He
was selected by
his official associates to embody their wants in a
paper, and on
this work he displayed such talent that Franklin, then
in London,
suggested America as a good field for his abilities. Paine
went in 1774,
and soon found work for his pen. He became editor of the
Pennsylvanian
Magazine and contributed to the Pennsylvanian journal
a strong
anti-slavery essay. Common Sense, published early in 1776,
advocating
absolute independence for America, did more than anything
else to
precipitate the great events of that year. Each number of
the Crisis, which
appeared during the war, was read by Washington's
order to each
regiment in the service. Paine subscribed largely
to the army,
and served for a short time himself. After peace was
declared,
congress voted him three thousand dollars, and the state
of New York
gave him a large farm. Paine turned his attention to
mechanics, and
invented the tubular iron bridge, which he endeavored
to introduce in
Europe. Reaching France during the Revolution,
he published a
pamphlet advocating the abolition of royalty. In
1791 he
published his Rights of Man, in reply to Burke. For this
he was
outlawed. Escaping from England, he went to France, where he
was elected to
the Convention. He stoutly opposed the execution of
the king, and
was thrown by Robespierre into the Luxembourg prison,
where for
nearly a year he awaited the guillotine. During this time
he wrote the
first part of the Age of Reason, which he completed
on his release.
This famous book, though vulnerable in some minor
points of
criticism, throws a flood of light on Christian dogmas,
and has had a
more extended sale than any other Freethought work. As
a natural
consequence, Paine has been an object of incessant slander
by the clergy.
Paine died at New York 8 June, 1809, and, by his own
direction was
buried on his farm at New Rochelle. Cobbett is said to
have
disinterred him and brought his bones to England.
Pajot
(François). See Liniere.
Paleario
(Aonio), i.e., Antonio, della Paglia, Italian humanist and
martyr, b.
about 1500 at Véroli in the Roman Campagna. In 1520 he
went to Rome
and took place among the brilliant men of letters of
court of Leo X.
After the taking of Rome by Charles V. he retired
to Sienna. In
1536 he published at Lyons an elegant Latin poem on
the Mortality
of the Soul--modeled on Lucretius. He was Professor
of Eloquence at
Milan for ten years, but was accused of heresy. He
had called the
Inquisition a poignard directed against all men of
letters. On 3
July, 1570, he was hung and his body thrown into the
flames. A work
on the Benefit of Christ's Death has been attributed to
him on
insufficient grounds. It is attributed to Benedetto da Mantova.
Pallas (Peter
Simon), German naturalist and traveller, b. Berlin,
22 Sept. 1741.
Educated as a physician at Gottingen and Leyden,
he was invited
by Catherine II. to become Professor of Natural
History at St.
Petersburg. He travelled through Siberia and settled
in the Crimea.
In 1810 he returned to Berlin, where he died 8
Sept. 1811.
Lalande spoke highly of him, and Cuvier considered him
the founder of
modern geology.
Pallavicino
(Ferrante), Italian poet and wit, b. Piacenza 1616. He
became a canon
of the Lateran congregation, but for composing some
satirical
pieces against Pope Urban VIII. had a price set on his
head. He fled
to Venice, but a false friend betrayed him to the
Inquisition,
and he was beheaded at Avignon, 5 March, 1644.
Palmer
(Courtlandt), American reformer, b. New York, 25 March,
1843, graduated
at the Columbia law-school in '69. He was brought
up in the Dutch
Reformed Church, but became a Freethinker while
still young.
Mr. Palmer did much to promote Liberal ideas. In '80
he established
and became President of the Nineteenth Century Club,
for the utmost
liberty of public discussion. He contributed to the
Freethinker's
Magazine, Truthseeker, etc. A sister married Prof. Draper
with whom he
was intimate. Died at New York, 23 July, 1888, and was
cremated at
Fresh Pond, his friend Col. R. G. Ingersoll delivering
an eulogium.
Palmer (Elihu),
American author, b. Canterbury, Connecticut,
1764. He graduated
at Dartmouth in 1787, and studied divinity but
became a deist
in 1791. In 1793 he became totally blind from an
attack of
yellow fever. In 1797 he lectured to a Deistical Society
in New York.
After this he dictated his Principles of Nature, 1802,
a powerful
anti-Christian work, reprinted by Carlile in '19. He also
wrote Prospect
or View of the Moral World from the year 1804. Palmer
was the head of
the Society of Columbian Illuminati founded in New
York in 1801.
He died in Philadelphia, 7 April, 1806.
Panaetius,
Stoic philosopher, b. Rhodes, a pupil of Diogenes the Stoic,
and perhaps of
Carneades. About 150 B.C. he visited Rome and taught a
moderate
stoicism, denying the doctrine of the conflagration of the
world, and
placing physics before dialectics. He wrote a work On
Duties, to
which Cicero expresses his indebtedness in his De Officiis.
Died in Athens
111 B.C.
Pancoucke
(Charles Joseph), eminent French publisher, b. Lille, 26
Nov. 1736. He
settled at Paris and became acquainted with d'Alembert,
Garat, etc.,
and was a correspondent of Rousseau, Buffon and Voltaire,
whose works he
brought out. He translated Lucretius, 1768, brought out
the Mercure de
France, projected in 1781 the important Encyclopédie
Méthodique, of
which there are 166 vols., and founded the Moniteur,
1789. Died at
Paris, 19 Dec. 1798.
Pantano
(Eduardo), Italian author of a little book on the Sicilian
Vespers and the
Commune, Catania, 1882.
Papillon (J.
Henri Fernand), French philosophic writer, b. Belfort,
5 June, 1847.
He wrote an Introduction to Chemical Philosophy,
'65;
contributed to the Revue de Philosophie Positive and the Revue
des Deux
Mondes. His principal work is entitled Nature and Life,
'73. Died at
Paris 31 Dec. 1873.
Paquet (Henri
Remi René), French writer, b. Charleville, 29
Sep. 1845.
After studying under the Jesuits he went to Paris,
where he became
an advocate, but devoted his main attention to
literature.
Under the anagram of "Nérée Quépat" he has published La
Lorgnette
Philosophique, '72, a dictionary of the great and little
philosophers of
our time, a study of La Mettrie entitled Materialist
Philosophy in
the Eighteenth Century and other works.
Pare (William),
Owenite Social reformer, b. Birmingham, 11
Aug. 1805.
Wrote an abridgment of Thompson's Distribution of Wealth,
also works on
Capital and Labor '54, Co-operative Agriculture, at
Rahaline, '70,
etc. He compiled vol. 1 of the Biography of Robert
Owen. Died at
Croydon, 18 June, 1873.
Parfait (Noel),
French writer and politician, b. Chartres, 30
Nov. 1814. Took
part in the revolution of '30, and wrote many radical
brochures.
After the coup d'état he took refuge in Belgium. In '71
was elected
deputy and sat on the extreme left.
Parfait (Paul),
son of the foregoing, b. Paris, 1841. Author of
L'Arsenal de la
Dévotion, '76, Notes to serve for a history of
superstition,
and a supplement Le Dossier des Pélerinages, '77,
and other
pieces. Died 1881.
Parisot (Jean
Patrocle), a Frenchman who wrote La Foy devoilée par
la raison, 1681
[Faith Unveiled by Reason], a work whose title seems
to have
occasioned its suppression.
Parker
(Theodore), American rationalist, b. Lexington, Mass., 24
Aug. 1810. From
his father--a Unitarian--he inherited independence
of mind,
courage, and love of speculation. Brought up in poverty he
studied hard,
and acquired a University education while laboring on the
farm. In March,
'31, he became an assistant teacher at Boston. In June,
'37, he was
ordained Unitarian minister. Parker gradually became known
as an
iconoclast, and study of the German critics made him a complete
rationalist, so
that even the Unitarian body rejected him. A society
was established
to give him a hearing in Boston, and soon his fame
was
established. His Discourse on Matters Pertaining to Religion,
'47, exhibited
his fundamental views. He translated and enlarged
De Wette's
Critical Introduction to the Old Testament. A fearless
opponent of the
Fugitive Slave Law, he sheltered slaves in his own
house. Early in
'59 failing health compelled him to relinquish his
duties. Died at
Florence, 10 May, 1860. He bequeathed his library of
13,000 volumes
to the Boston Public Library.
Parmenides, a
Greek philosopher, b. Elea, Italy, 518 B.C. Is said
to have been a
disciple of Xenophanes. He developed his philosophy
about 470 B.C.
in a didactic poem On Nature, fragments of which are
preserved by
Sextus Empiricus. He held to Reason as our guide, and
considered
nature eternal.
Parny (Évariste
Désiré de Forges de), Viscount. French poet,
b. St. Paul,
Isle of Bourbon, 6 Feb. 1753. Educated in France, he
chose the
military profession. A disappointed passion for a creole
inspired his
"Amatory Poems," and he afterwards wrote the audacious
War of the
Gods, Paradise Lost, and The Gallantries of the Bible. His
poems, though
erotic, are full of elegant charm, and he has been
named the
French Tibullus. He was admitted into the French Academy
in 1803. Died
at Paris, 5 Dec. 1814.
Parton (James),
author, b. Canterbury, England, 9 Feb. 1822. Was taken
to the United
States when a child and educated at New York. He married
Miss Willis,
"Fannie Fern," and has written many biographies, including
Lives of Thomas
Jefferson, '74, and of Voltaire, '81. He has also
written on
Topics of the Time, '71, and Church Taxation. He resided
in New York
till '75 when he removed to Newburyport, Massachusetts.
Parvish
(Samuel), Deistic author of An Inquiry into the Jewish and
Christian
Revelation (London, 1739), of which a second edition was
issued in 1746.
Pasquier
(Étienne). French journalist, b. 7 April, 1529, at
Paris. Brought
up to the bar he became a successful pleader. He
defended the
Universities against the Jesuits, whom he also attacked
in a bitter
satire, Catéchisme des Jésuites. Died Paris, 30 Aug. 1615.
Passerano
(Alberto Radicati di) count. Italian philosopher of last
century,
attached to the court of Victor Amedée II. For some pamphlets
written against
the Papal power he was pursued by the Inquisition and
his goods
seized. He lived in England and made the acquaintance of
Collins, also
in France and Holland, where he died about 1736, leaving
his goods to
the poor. In that year he published at Rotterdam Recueil
de Pièces
curieuses sur les matieres les plus íntéressantes, etc.,
which contains
a Parallel between Mahomet and Sosem (anagram of Moses),
an abridged
history of the Sacerdotal Profession, and a Faithful and
comic recital
of the religion of modern cannibals, by Zelin Moslem;
also a
Dissertation upon Death, which was published separately in
1733. The
Recueil was republished at London in 1749. He also wrote a
pretended
translation from an Arabic work on Mohammedanism, satirising
the Bible, and
a pretended sermon by Elwall the Quaker.
Pasteur
(Louis). French scientist b. Dôle, 27 Dec 1822, became doctor
in '47 and
professor of physic at Strassburg in '48. He received
the Rumford
medal of the Royal Society in '56 for his discoveries
in polarisation
and molecular chemistry. Decorated with the Legion
of honor in
'53, he was made commander '68 and grand officer '78. His
researches into
innoculation have been much contested, but his admirers
have raised a
large institute for the prosecution of his treatment. He
was elected to
the Academy as successor of Littré. He gave his name
as
Vice-President of the British Secular Union.
Pastoret
(Claude Emmanuel Joseph Pierre de), Marquis, French statesman
and writer, b.
of noble family at Marseilles, 25 Oct. 1756. Educated by
the Oratorians
at Lyons, in 1779 he published an Elege de Voltaire. By
his works on
Zoroaster, Confucius and Mahomet (1787) and on Moses
Considered as
Legislator and Moralist (1788) he did something for the
infant science
of comparative religion. His principal work is a learned
History of
Legislation, in 11 vols. (1817-37), in which he passes in
review all the
ancient codes. He embraced the Revolution, and became
President of
the Legislative Assembly (3 Oct. 1791). He proposed the
erection of the
Column of July on the Place of the Bastille, and the
conversion of
the church of Ste Geneviève into the Pantheon. On the
19th June,
1792, he presented a motion for the complete separation of
the state from
religion. He fled during the Terror, but returned as
deputy in 1795.
In 1820 he succeeded his friend Volney as member of
the French
Academy, in '23 received the cross of the Legion of Honor,
and in '29
became Chancellor of France. Died at Paris, 28 Sept. 1840.
Pater (Walter
Horatio), English writer, b. London, 4 Aug. 1839. B.A. at
Oxford in '62,
M.A. in '65. Has written charming essays in the
Westminster
Review, Macmillan, and the Fortnightly Review. In '73
he published
The Renaissance, and in '85 Marius the Epicurean, His
Sensations and
Ideas.
Paterson
(Thomas), b. near Lanark early in this century. After
the
imprisonment of Southwell and Holyoake he edited the Oracle of
Reason. For
exhibiting profane placards he was arrested and sentenced
27 Jan. 1843 to
three months' imprisonment. His trial was reported
under the title
God v. Paterson ('43.) He insisted on considering
God as the
plaintiff and in quoting from "the Jew book" to show
the plaintiff's
bad character. When released he went to Scotland to
uphold the
right of free publication, and was sentenced 8 Nov. '43 to
fifteen months'
imprisonment for selling "blasphemous" publications
at Edinburgh.
On his release he was presented with a testimonial 6
April, 1845, H.
Hetherington presiding. Paterson went to America.
Patin (Gui),
French physician, writer, and wit, b. near Beauvais
31 Aug. 1602.
He became professor at the college of France. His
reputation is
chiefly founded on his Letters, in which he attacked
superstition.
Larousse says "C'était un libre penseur de la famille
de
Rabelais." Died at Paris 30 Aug. 1672.
Patot. See
Tyssot de Patot (S.)
Pauw
(Cornelius), learned Dutch writer, b. Amsterdam, 1739. He wrote
philosophical
researches on the Americans, and also on the Egyptians,
Chinese, and
Greeks. Was esteemed by Frederick the Great for his
ingenuity and
penetration. Died at Xanten, 7 July, 1799. He was the
uncle of
Anacharsis Clootz.
Peacock (John
Macleay), Scotch poet, b. 21 March, 1817. He wrote
many poems in the
National Reformer, and in '67 published Hours of
Reverie. Died 4
May, 1877.
Peacock or
Pecock (Reginald), the father of English rationalism,
b. about 1390,
and educated at Oriel College Oxford, of which he
was chosen
fellow in 1417. Was successively Bishop of St Asaph,
1444, and
Chichester, 1450, by the favor of Humphrey, the good
Duke of
Gloster. He declared that Scripture must in all cases be
accommodated to
"the doom of reason." He questioned the genuineness
of the
Apostles' Creed. In 1457 he was accused of heresy, recanted
from fear of
martyrdom, was deprived of his bishopric, and imprisoned
in a monastery
at Canterbury, where he used to repeat to those who
visited him,
"Wit hath wonder, that reason
cannot skan,
How a Moder is Mayd, and God is
Man."
His books were
publicly burnt at Oxford. He died in 1460. His influence
doubtless
contributed to the Reformation.
Pearson (Karl),
author of a volume of essays entitled The Ethic of
Freethought,
1888. Educated at Cambridge; B.A. '79, M.A. '82.
Pechmeja (Jean
de), French writer. A friend of Raynal, he wrote a
socialistic
romance in 12 books in the style of Telemachus, called
Télèphe, 1784.
Died 1785.
Peck (John),
American writer in the Truthseeker. Has published Miracles
and Miracle
Workers, etc.
Pecqueur (A.),
contributor to the Rationaliste of Geneva, 1864.
Pelin
(Gabriel), French author of works on Spiritism Explained and
Destroyed,
1864, and God or Science, '67.
Pelletan
(Charles Camille), French journalist and deputy, son of
the following;
b. Paris, 23 June, 1846. Studied at the Lycée Louis
le Grand. He
wrote in La Tribune Française, and Le Rappel, and since
'80 has
conducted La Justice with his friend Clémenceau, of whom he
has written a
sketch.
Pelletan
(Pierre Clement Eugène), French writer,
b.
Saint-Palais-sur-Meir, 20 Oct. 1813. As a journalist he wrote in
La Presse,
under the name of "Un Inconnu," articles distinguished
by their love
of liberty and progress. He also contributed to the
Revue des Deux
Mondes. In '52 he published his Profession of Faith
of the
Nineteenth Century, and in '57 The Law of Progress and The
Philosophical
Kings. From '53-'55 he opposed Napoleon in the Siècle,
and afterwards
established La Tribune Française. In '63 he was
elected deputy,
but his election being annulled, he was re-elected in
'64. He took
distinguished rank among the democratic opposition. After
the battle of
Sedan he was made member of the Committee of National
Defence, and in
'76 of the Senate, of which he became vice-president
in '79. In '78
he wrote a study on Frederick the Great entitled Un
Roi Philosophe,
and in '83 Is God Dead? Died at Paris, 14 Dec. 1884.
Pemberton
(Charles Reece). English actor and author, b. Pontypool,
S. Wales, 23
Jan. 1790. He travelled over most of the world and
wrote The
Autobiography of Pel Verjuice, which with other remains
was published
in 1843. Died 3 March, 1840.
Pennetier
(Georges), Dr., b. Rouen, 1836, Director of the Museum of
Natural History
at Rouen. Author of a work on the Origin of Life,
'68, in which
he contends for spontaneous generation. To this work
F. A. Pouchet
contributed a preface.
Perfitt (Philip
William), Theist, b. 1820, edited the Pathfinder,
'59-61.
Preached at South Place Chapel. Wrote Life and Teachings of
Jesus of
Nazareth, '61.
Periers
(Bonaventure des). See Desperiers.
Perot (Jean
Marie Albert), French banker, author of a work on Man
and God, which
has been translated into English, 1881, and Moral and
Philosophical
Allegories (Paris, 1883).
Perrier
(Edmond), French zoologist, Curator at Museum of Natural
History, Paris,
b. Tulle, 1844. Author of numerous works on Natural
History, and
one on Transformisme, '88.
Perrin (Raymond
S.), American author of a bulky work on The Religion
of Philosophy,
or the Unification of Knowledge: a comparison of the
chief
philosophical and religious systems of the world, 1885.
Perry (Thomas
Ryley), one of Carlile's shopmen, sentenced 1824 to
three years'
imprisonment in Newgate for selling Palmer's Principles
of Nature. He
became a chemist at Leicester and in 1844 petitioned
Parliament for
the prisoners for blasphemy, Paterson and Roalfe,
stating that
his own imprisonment had not fulfilled the judge's hope
of his
recantation.
Petit (Claude),
French poet, burnt on the Place de Grève in 1665 as
the author of
some impious pieces.
Petronius,
called Arbiter (Titus), Roman Epicurean poet at the Court
of Nero, in
order to avoid whose resentment he opened his veins and
bled to death
in A.D. 66, conversing meanwhile with his friends on the
gossip of the
day. To him we owe the lines on superstition, beginning
"Primus in
orbe Deos fecit timor." Petronius is famous for his "pure
Latinity."
He is as plain-spoken as Juvenal, and with the same excuse,
his romance
being a satire on Nero and his court.
Petruccelli
della Gattina (Ferdinando) Italian writer, b. Naples,
1816, has
travelled much and written many works. He was deputy to
the Naples
Parliament in '48, and exiled after the reaction.
Petrus de
Abano. A learned Italian physician, b. Abano 1250. He
studied at
Paris and became professor of medicine at Padua. He wrote
many works and
had a great reputation. He is said to have denied the
existence of
spirits, and to have ascribed all miracles to natural
causes. Cited
before the Inquisition in 1306 as a heretic, a magician
and an Atheist,
he ably defended himself and was acquitted. He was
accused a
second time but dying (1320) while the trial was preparing,
he was
condemned after death, his body disinterred and burnt, and he
was also burnt
in effigy in the public square of Padua.
Peypers (H. F.
A.), Dutch writer, b. De Rijp, 2 Jan. 1856, studied
medicine, and
is now M.D. at Amsterdam. He is a man of erudition and
good natured
though satirical turn of mind. He has contributed much
to De Dageraad,
and is at present one of the five editors of that
Freethought
monthly.
Peyrard
(François), French mathematician, b. Vial (Haute Loire)
1760. A warm
partisan of the revolution, he was one of those who (7
Nov. 1793)
incited Bishop Gobel to abjure his religion. An intimate
friend of
Sylvian Maréchal, Peyrard furnished him with notes for
his
Dictionnaire des Athées. He wrote a work on Nature and its Laws,
1793-4, and
proposed the piercing of the Isthmus of Suez. He translated
the works of
Euclid and Archimedes. Died at Paris 3 Oct. 1822.
Peyrat
(Alphonse), French writer, b. Toulouse, 21 June, 1812. He
wrote in the
National and la Presse, and combated against the Second
Empire. In '65
he founded l'Avenir National, which was several
times
condemned. In Feb. '71, he was elected deputy of the Seine,
and proposed
the proclamation of the Republic. In '76 he was chosen
senator. He
wrote a History of the Dogma of the Immaculate Conception,
'55; History
and Religion, '58; Historical and Religious Studies, '58;
and an able and
scholarly Elementary and Critical History of Jesus,
'64.
Peyrere (Isaac
de la), French writer, b. Bordeaux, 1594, and brought up
as a
Protestant. He entered into the service of the house of Condé, and
became intimate
with La Mothe de Vayer and Gassendi. His work entitled
Præadamitæ,
1653, in which he maintained that men lived before Adam,
made a great
sensation, and was burnt by the hangman at Paris. The
bishop of Namur
censured it, and la Peyrère was arrested at Brussels,
1656, by order
of the Archbishop of Malines, but escaped by favor of
the Prince of
Condé on condition of retracting his book at Rome. The
following
epitaph was nevertheless made on him:
La Peyrere ici gît, ce bon
Israelite,
Hugenot, Catholique, enfin
Pre-adamite:
Quatre religions lui plurent à la fois:
Et son indifférence était si peu
commune
Qu'après 80 ans qu'il eut à faire
un choix
Le bon homme partit, et n'en
choisit pas une.
Died near
Paris, 30 Jan. 1676.
Pfeiff (Johan
Gustaf Viktor), Swedish baron, b. Upland, 1829. Editor
of the free
religious periodical, The Truthseeker, since 1882. He has
also translated
into Swedish some of the writings of Herbert Spencer.
Pharmacopulo
(A.P.) Greek translator of Büchner's Force and Matter, and
corresponding
member of the International Federation of Freethinkers.
Phillips (Sir
Richard), industrious English writer, b. London, 1767. He
was hosier,
bookseller, printer, publisher, republican, Sheriff of
London
(1807-8), and Knight. He compiled many schoolbooks, chiefly
under
pseudonyms, of which the most popular were the Rev. J. Goldsmith
and Rev. D.
Blair. His own opinions are seen most in his Million of
Facts. Died at
Brighton 2 April, 1840.
Phillippo
(William Skinner), farmer, of Wood Norton, near Thetford,
Norfolk. A
deist who wrote an Essay on Political and Religious
Meditations,
1868.
Pi-y Margall
(Francisco), Spanish philosopher and Republican statesman,
b. Barcelona,
1820. The first book he learnt to read was the Ruins
of Volney.
Studied law and became an advocate. He has written many
political
works, and translated Proudhon, for whom he has much
admiration,
into Spanish. He has also introduced the writings and
philosophy of
Comte into his own country. He was associated with
Castelar and
Figueras in the attempt to establish a Spanish Republic,
being Minister
of the Interior, and afterwards President in 1873.
Pichard
(Prosper). French Positivist, author of Doctrine of Reality,
"a
catechism for the use of people who do not pay themselves with
words," to
which Littré wrote a preface, 1873.
Pierson
(Allard). Dutch rationalist critic, b. Amsterdam 8 April,
1831. Educated
in theology, he was minister to the Evangelical
congregation at
Leuven, afterwards at Rotterdam and finally professor
at Heidelberg.
He resigned his connection with the Church in '64. He
has written
many works of theological and literary value of which we
mention his
Poems '82, New Studies on Calvin, '83, and Verisimilia,
written in
conjunction with S. A. Naber, '86.
Pigault-Lebrun
(Guillaume Charles Antoine), witty French author,
b. Calais, 8
April, 1753. He studied under the Oratorians of
Boulogne. He
wrote numerous comedies and romances, and Le Citateur,
1803, a
collection of objections to Christianity, borrowed in part
from Voltaire,
whose spirit he largely shared. In 1811 Napoleon
threatened the
priests he would issue this work wholesale. It
was suppressed
under the Restoration, but has been frequently
reprinted.
Pigault-Lebrun became secretary to King Jerome Napoleon,
and died at La
Celle-Saint-Cloud, 24 July, 1835.
Pike (J. W.)
American lecturer, b. Concord (Ohio), 27 June, 1826,
wrote My
Religious Experience and What I found in the Bible, 1867.
Pillsbury
(Parker), American reformer, b. Hamilton, Mass., 22
Sep. 1809. Was
employed in farm work till '35, when he entered
Gilmerton
theological seminary. He graduated in '38, studied a year
at Andover, was
congregational minister for one year, and then,
perceiving the
churches were the bulwark of slavery, abandoned the
ministry. He
became an abolitionist lecturer, edited the Herald
of Freedom,
National Anti-Slavery Standard, and the Revolution. He
also preached
for free religious societies, wrote Pious Frauds, and
contributed to
the Boston Investigator and Freethinkers' Magazine. His
principal work
is Acts of the Anti-Slavery Apostles, 1883.
Piron (Alexis),
French comic poet, b. Dijon, 9 July, 1689. His
pieces were
full of wit and gaiety, and many anecdotes are told of
his profanity.
Among his sallies was his reply to a reproof for being
drunk on Good
Friday, that failing must be excused on a day when even
deity
succumbed. Being blind in his old age he affected piety. Worried
by his
confessor about a Bible in the margin of which he had written
parodies and
epigrams as the best commentary, he threw the whole book
in the fire.
Asked on his death-bed if he believed in God he answered
"Parbleu,
I believe even in the Virgin." Died at Paris, 21 Jan. 1773.
Pisarev (Dmitri
Ivanovich) Russian critic, journalist, and materialist,
b. 1840. He
first became known by his criticism on the Scholastics of
the nineteenth
century. Died Baden, near Riga, July 1868. His works
are published
in ten vols. Petersburg, 1870.
Pitt (William).
Earl of Chatham, an illustrious English statesman
and orator, b.
Boconnoc, Cornwall, 15 Nov. 1708. The services to his
country of
"the Great Commoner," as he was called, are well known,
but it is not
so generally recognised that his Letter on Superstition,
first printed
in the London Journal in 1733, entitles him to be ranked
with the
Deists. He says that "the more superstitious people are,
always the more
vicious; and the more they believe, the less they
practice."
Atheism furnishes no man with arguments to be vicious;
but
superstition, or what the world made by religion, is the greatest
possible
encouragement to vice, by setting up something as religion,
which shall
atone and commute for the want of virtue. This remarkable
letter ends
with the words "Remember that the only true divinity
is
humanity."
Place
(Francis), English Radical reformer and tailor; b. 1779 at
Charing Cross.
He early became a member of the London, Corresponding
Society. He
wrote to Carlile's Republican and Lion. A friend of
T. Hardy, H.
Tooke, James Mill, Bentham, Roebuck, Hetherington, and
Hibbert (who
puts him in his list of English Freethinkers). He was
connected with
all the advanced movements of his time and has left
many
manuscripts illustrating the politics of that period, which are
now in the
British Museum. He always professed to be an Atheist--see
Reasoner, 26
March, '54. Died at Kensington, 1 Jan. 1854.
Platt (James),
F.S.S., a woolen merchant and Deistic author of
popular works
on Business, '75; Morality, '78; Progress, '80; Life,
'81; God and
Mammon, etc.
Pliny (Caius Plinius
Secundus), the elder, Roman naturalist, b. Verona,
A.D. 22. He
distinguished himself in the army, was admitted into the
college of
Augurs, appointed procurator in Spain, and honored with
the esteem of
Vespasian and Titus. He wrote the history of his own
time in 31
books, now lost, and a Natural History in 37 books, one
of the most
precious monuments of antiquity, in which his Epicurean
Atheism
appears. Being with the fleet at Misenum, 24 Aug. A.D. 79,
he observed the
eruption of Mount Vesuvius, and landing to assist
the inhabitants
was himself suffocated by the noxious vapors.
Plumacher
(Olga), German pessimist, follower of Hartmann, and authoress
of a work on
Pessimism in the Past and Future, Heidelberg, 1884. She
has also
defended her views in Mind.
Plumer
(William) American senator, b. Newburyport, Mass. 25 June,
1759. In 1780
he became a Baptist preacher, but resigned on account
of scepticism.
He remained a deist. He served in the Legislature
eight terms,
during two of which he was Speaker. He was governor
of New
Hampshire, 1812-18, wrote to the press over the signature
"Cincinnatus,"
and published an Address to the Clergy, '14. He lived
till 22 June,
1850.
Plutarch. Greek
philosopher and historian, b. Cheronæa in Boetia, about
A.D. 50. He
visited Delphi and Rome, where he lived in the reign of
Trajan. His
Parallel Lives of forty-six Greeks and Romans have made
him immortal.
He wrote numerous other anecdotal and ethical works,
including a
treatise on Superstition. He condemned the vulgar notions
of Deity, and
remarked, in connection with the deeds popularly ascribed
to the gods,
that he would rather men said there was no Plutarch than
traduce his
character. In other words, superstition is more impious
than Atheism.
Died about A.D. 120.
Poe (Edgar Allan),
American poet, grandson of General Poe, who figured
in the war of
independence, b. Boston, 19 Jan. 1809. His mother was
an actress.
Early left an orphan. After publishing Tamerlane and other
Poems, '27, he
enlisted in the United States Army, but was cashiered in
'31. He then
took to literary employment in Baltimore and wrote many
stories,
collected as the Tales of Mystery, Imagination, and Humor. In
'45 appeared
The Raven and other Poems, which proved him the most
musical and
dextrous of American poets. In '48 he published Eureka,
a Prose Poem,
which, though comparatively little known, he esteemed
his greatest
work. It indicates pantheistic views of the universe. His
personal
appearance was striking and one of his portraits is not
unlike that of
James Thomson. Died in Baltimore, 7 Oct. 1849.
Poey (Andrés),
Cuban meteorologist and Positivist of French and Spanish
descent, b.
Havana, 1826. Wrote in the Modern Thinker, and is author
of many
scientific memoirs and a popular exposition of Positivism
(Paris, 1876),
in which he has a chapter on Darwinism and Comtism.
Pompery
(Edouard), French publicist, b. Courcelles, 1812. A follower
of Fourier, he
has written on Blanquism and opportunism, '79, and a
Life of
Voltaire, '80.
Pomponazzi
(Pietro) [Lat. Pomponatius], Italian philosopher,
b. Mantua, of
noble family, 16 Sept. 1462. He studied at Padua,
where he
graduated 1487 as laureate of medicine. Next year he was
appointed
professor of philosophy at Padua, teaching in concurrence
with Achillini.
He afterwards taught the doctrines of Aristotle at
Ferrara and
Bologna. His treatise De Immortalitate Animæ, 1516, gave
great offence
by denying the philosophical foundation of the doctrine
of the
immortality of the soul. The work was burnt by the hangman at
Venice, and it
is said Cardinal Bembo's intercession with Pope Leo
X. only saved
Pomponazzi from ecclesiastical procedure. Among his works
is a treatise
on Fate, Free Will, etc. Pomponazzi was a diminutive
man, and was
nicknamed "Peretto." He held that doubt was necessary
for the
development of knowledge, and left an unsullied reputation
for upright
conduct and sweet temper. Died at Bologna, 18 May, 1525,
and was buried
at Mantua, where a monument was erected to his memory.
Ponnat (de),
Baron, French writer, b. about 1810. Educated by
Jesuits, he
became a thorough Freethinker and democrat and a friend
of A. S. Morin,
with whom he collaborated on the Rationaliste of
Geneva. He
wrote many notable articles in La Libre Pensée, Le Critique,
and Le Candide,
for writing in which last he was sentenced to one
year's
imprisonment. He published, under the anagram of De Pontan,
The Cross or
Death, a discourse to the bishops who assisted at the
Ecumenical
Council at Rome (Brussels, '62). His principal work is
a history of
the variations and contradictions of the Roman Church
(Paris, '82).
Died in 1884.
Porphyry, Greek
philosoper of the New Platonic school, b. Sinia,
233 A.D. His
original name was Malchus or Melech--a "King." He was
a pupil of
Longinus and perhaps of Origen. Some have supposed that
he was of
Jewish faith, and first embraced and then afterwards
rejected
Christianity. It is certain he was a man of learning and
intelligence;
the friend as well as the disciple of Plotinus. He wrote
(in Greek) a
famous work in fifteen books against the Christians, some
fragments of
which alone remain in the writings of his opponents. It
is certain he
showed acquaintance with the Jewish and Christian
writings,
exposed their contradictions, pointed out the dispute between
Peter and Paul,
and referred Daniel to the time of Antiochus Epiphanes.
He wrote many
other works, among which are lives of Plotinus and
Pythagorus.
Died at Rome about 305.
Porzio
(Simone), a disciple of Pomponazzi, to whom, when lecturing
at Pisa, the
students cried "What of the soul?" He frankly professed
his belief that
the human soul differed in no essential point from
the soul of a
lion or plant, and that those who thought otherwise
were prompted
by pity for our mean estate. These assertions are in
his treatise De
Mente Humanâ.
"Posos
(Juan de)," an undiscovered author using this pen-name,
expressed
atheistic opinions in a book of imaginary travels, published
in Dutch at
Amsterdam in 1708, and translated into German at Leipsic,
1721.
Post (Amy),
American reformer, b. 1803. From '28 she was a leading
advocate of
slavery abolition, temperance, woman's suffrage and
religious
reform. Died Rochester, New York, 29 Jan. 1889.
Potter (Agathon
Louis de). See De Potter (A. L.)
Potter (Louis
Antoine Joseph de). See De Potter (L. A. J.)
Potvin
(Charles), Belgian writer b. Mons. 2 Dec. 1818, is member of the
Royal Academy
of Letters, and professor of the history of literature
at Brussels. He
wrote anonymously Poesie et Amour '58, and Rome and
the Family.
Under the name of "Dom Jacobus" he has written an able
work in two
volumes on The Church and Morality, and also Tablets of
a Freethinker.
He was president of "La Libre Pensée" of Brussels from
'78 to '83, is
director of the Revue de Belgique and has collaborated
on the National
and other papers.
Pouchet (Felix
Archimède), French naturalist, b. Rouen 26
Aug. 1800.
Studied medicine under Dr. Flaubert, father of the author
of Mme. Bovary,
and became doctor in '27. He was made professor of
natural history
at the Museum of Rouen, and by his experiments enriched
science with
many discoveries. He defended spontaneous generation and
wrote many
monographs and books of which the principal is entitled
The Universe,
'65. Died at Rouen, 6 Dec. 1872.
Pouchet (Henri
Charles George), French naturalist, son of the
proceeding, b.
Rouen, 1833, made M.D. in '64, and in '79 professor
of comparative
anatomy in the museum of Natural History at Paris. In
'80 he was
decorated with the Legion of Honor. He has written on The
Plurality of
the Human Race, '58, and collaborated on the Siècle,
and the Revue
des Deux Mondes and to la Philosophie Positive.
Pouchkine (A.),
see Pushkin.
Pougens (Marie
Charles Joseph de), French author, a natural son of the
Prince de
Conti, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1755. About the age of 24 he was
blinded by
small pox. He became an intimate friend of the philosophers,
and, sharing
their views, embraced the revolution with ardor, though
it ruined his
fortunes. He wrote Philosophical Researches, 1786, edited
the posthumous
works of D'Alembert, 1799, and worked at a dictionary of
the French
language. His Jocko, a tale of a monkey, exhibits his keen
sympathy with
animal intelligence, and in his Philosophical Letters,
1826, he gives
anecdotes of Voltaire, Rousseau, D'Alembert, Pechmeja,
Franklin, etc.
Died at Vauxbuin, near Soissons, 19 Dec. 1833.
Poulin (Paul),
Belgian follower of Baron Colins and author of What
is God? What is
Man? a scientific solution of the religious problem
(Brussels,
1865), and re-issued as God According to Science, '75,
in which he
maintains that man and God exclude each other, and that
the only
divinity is moral harmony.
Poultier
D'Elmolte (François Martin), b. Montreuil-sur-Mer, 31
Oct. 1753.
Became a Benedictine monk, but cast aside his frock
at the
Revolution, married, and became chief of a battalion of
volunteers.
Elected to the Convention he voted for the death of
the King. He
conducted the journal, L'Ami des lois, and became
one of the
Council of Ancients. Exiled in 1816, he died at Tournay
in Belgium, 16
Feb. 1827. He wrote Morceaux Philosophiques in the
Journal
Encyclopédique; Victoire, or the Confessions of a Benedictine;
Discours
Décadaires, for the use of Theophilantropists, and Conjectures
on the Nature
and Origin of Things, Tournay, 1821.
Powell (B. F.),
compiler of the Bible of Reason, or Scriptures of
Ancient
Moralists; published by Hetherington in 1837.
Prades (Jean
Martin de), French theologian b. Castel-Sarrasin, about
1720. Brought
up for the church, he nevertheless became intimate with
Diderot and
contributed the article Certitude to the Encyclopédie. On
the 18th Nov.
1751 he presented to the Sorbonne a thesis for the
doctorate,
remarkable as the first open attack on Christianity by
a French
theologian. He maintained many propositions on the soul,
the origin of
society, the laws of Moses, miracles, etc., contrary
to the dogmas
of the Church, and compared the cures recorded in the
Gospels to
those attributed to Esculapius. The thesis made a great
scandal. His
opinions were condemned by Pope Benedict XIV., and he
fled to Holland
for safety. Recommended to Frederick the Great by
d'Alembert he
was received with favor at Berlin, and became reader to
that monarch,
who wrote a very anti-Christian preface to de Prades'
work on
ecclesiastical history, published as Abrége de l'Histoire
ecclesiastique
de Fleury, Berne (Berlin) 1766. He retired to a benefice
at Glogau
(Silesia), given him by Frederick, and died there in 1782.
Prater
(Horatio), a gentleman of some fortune who devoted himself to
the propagation
of Freethought ideas. Born early in the century, he
wrote on the
Physiology of the Blood, 1832. He published Letters to
the American
People, and Literary Essays, '56. Died 20 July, 1885. He
left the bulk
of his money to benevolent objects, and ordered a deep
wound to be
made in his arm to insure that he was dead.
Preda (Pietro),
Italian writer of Milan, author of a work on Revelation
and Reason,
published at Geneva, 1865, under the pseudonym of
"Padre
Pietro."
Premontval
(Andre Pierre Le Guay de), French writer, b. Charenton, 16
Feb. 1716. At
nineteen years of age, while in the college of Plessis
Sorbonne, he
composed a work against the dogma of the Eucharist. He
studied
mathematics and became member of the Academy of Sciences
at Berlin. He
wrote Le Diogene de D'Alembert, or Freethoughts on
Man, 1754,
Panangiana Panurgica, or the false Evangelist, and Vues
Philosophiques,
Amst., 2 vols., 1757. He also wrote De la Théologie
de L'Etre, in
which he denies many of the ordinary proofs of the
existence of a
God. Died Berlin, 1767.
Priestley
(Joseph), LL.D., English philosopher, b. Fieldhead, near
Leeds, 18
March, 1733. Brought up as a Calvinist, he found his way
to broad
Unitarianism. Famous as a pneumatic chemist, he defended the
doctrine of
philosophical necessity, and in a dissertation annexed to
his edition of
Hartley expressed doubts of the immateriality of the
sentient
principal in man. This doctrine he forcibly supported in
his
Disquisitions on Matter and Spirit, 1777. Through the obloquy
these works
produced, he lost his position as librarian to Lord
Shelburne. He
then removed to Birmingham, and became minister of
an independent
Unitarian congregation, and occupied himself on his
History of the
Corruptions of Christianity and History of the Early
Opinions
Concerning Jesus Christ, which involved him in controversy
with Bishop
Horsley and others. In consequence of his sympathy with
the French
Revolution, his house was burnt and sacked in a riot,
14 July, 1791.
After this he removed to Hackney, and was finally
goaded to seek
an asylum in the United States, which he reached in
1794. Even in
America he endured some uneasiness on account of his
opinions until
Jefferson became president. Died 6 Feb. 1804.
Pringle
(Allen), Canadian Freethinker, author of Ingersoll in Canada,
1880.
Proctor
(Richard Anthony), English astronomer, b. Chelsea, 23 March,
1837. Educated
at King's College, London, and at St. John's, Cambridge,
where he became
B.A. in '60. In '66 he became Fellow of the Royal
Astronomical
Society, of which he afterwards became hon. sec. He
maintained in
'69 the since-established theory of the solar corona. He
wrote,
lectured, and edited, far and wide, and left nearly fifty
volumes,
chiefly popularising science. Attracted by Newman, he was for
a while a
Catholic, but thought out the question of Catholicism and
science, and in
a letter to the New York Tribune, Nov. '75, formally
renounced that
religion as irreconcilable with scientific facts. His
remarks on the
so-called Star of Bethlehem in The Universe of Suns,
and other
Science Gleanings, and his Sunday lectures, indicated his
heresy. In '81
he started Knowledge, in which appeared many valuable
papers, notably
one (Jan. '87), "The Beginning of Christianity." He
entirely
rejected the miraculous elements of the gospels, which he
considered
largely a rechauffé of solar myths. In other articles
in the
Freethinkers' Magazine and the Open Court he pointed out the
coincidence
between the Christian stories and solar myths, and also
with stories
found in Josephus. The very last article he published
before his
untimely death was a vindication of Colonel Ingersoll
in his
controversy with Gladstone in the North American Review. In
'84 he settled
at St. Josephs, Mobille, where he contracted yellow
fever and died
at New York, 12 Sep. 1888.
Proudhon
(Pierre Joseph), French anarchist and political thinker,
b. Besançon, 15
Jan. 1809. Self-educated he became a printer,
and won a prize
of 1,500 francs for the person "best fitted for a
literary or
scientific career." In '40 appears his memoir, What is
Property? in
which he made the celebrated answer "C'est le vol." In
'43 the
Creation of Order in Humanity appeared, treating of religion,
philosophy and
logic. In '46 he published his System of Economical
Contradictions,
in which appeared his famous aphorism, "Dieu,
c'est le
mal." In '48 he introduced his scheme of the organisation
of credit in a
Bank of the People, which failed, though Proudhon
saw that no one
lost anything. He attacked Louis Bonaparte when
President, and
was sentenced to three years' imprisonment and a fine
of 10,000
francs. On 2 Jan. '50 he married by private contract while
in prison. For
his work on Justice in the Revolution and in the Church
he was
condemned to three years' imprisonment and 4,000 francs fine in
'58. He took
refuge in Belgium and returned in '63. Died at Passy,
19 Jan. 1865.
Among his posthumous works was The Gospels Annotated,
'66. Proudhon
was a bold and profound thinker of noble aspirations,
but he lacked
the sense of art and practicability. His complete works
have been
published in 26 vols.
Protagoras,
Greek philosopher, b. Abdera, about 480 B.C. Is said to
have been a
disciple of Democritus, and to have been a porter before
he studied
philosophy. He was the first to call himself a sophist. He
wrote in a book
on the gods, "Respecting the gods, I am unable to
know whether
they exist or do not exist." For this he was impeached
and banished,
and his book burnt. He went to Epirus and the Greek
Islands, and
died about 411. He believed all things were in flux,
and summed up
his conclusions in the proposition that "man is the
measure of all
things, both of that which exists and that which does
not
exist." Grote, who defends the Sophists, says his philosophy "had
the merit of
bringing into forcible relief the essentially relative
nature of
cognition."
Prudhomme
(Sully). See Sully Prudhomme.
Pückler Muskau
(Hermann Ludwig Heinrich), Prince, a German writer,
b. Muskau, 30
Oct. 1785. He travelled widely and wrote his observations
in a work
entitled Letters of a Defunct, 1830; this was followed by
Tutti Frutti,
'32; Semilasso in Africa, '36, and other works. Died
4 Feb. 1871.
Pushkin
(Aleksandr Sergyeevich), eminent Russian poet, often
called the
Russian Byron, b. Pskow, 26 May, 1799. From youth he
was remarkable
for his turbulent spirit, and his first work, which
circulated only
in manuscript, was founded on Parny's Guerre des
Dieux, and
entitled the Gabrielade, the archangel being the hero. He
was exiled by
the Emperor, but, inspired largely by reading Voltaire
and Byron, put
forward numerous poems and romances, of which the most
popular is
Eugene Onéguine, an imitation of Don Juan. He also wrote
some histories
and founded the Sovremennik (Contemporary), 1836. In
Jan. 1837 he
was mortally wounded in a duel.
Putnam (Samuel
P.), American writer and lecturer, brought up as a
minister. He
left that profession for Freethought, and became secretary
to the American
Secular Union, of which he was elected president in
Oct. 1887. In
'88 he started Freethought at San Francisco in company
with G.
Macdonald. Has written poems, Prometheus, Ingersoll and Jesus,
Adami and Heva;
romances entitled Golden Throne, Waifs and Wanderings,
and Gottlieb,
and pamphlets on the Problem of the Universe, The New
God, and The
Glory of Infidelity.
Putsage
(Jules), Belgian follower of Baron Colins, founder of the
Colins
Philosophical Society at Mons; has written on Determinism and
Rational
Science, Brussels 1885, besides many essays in La Philosophie
de L'Avenir of
Paris and La Societe Nouvelle of Brussels.
Pyat (Felix)
French socialist, writer and orator, b. Vierzon, 4
Oct. 1810. His
father was religious and sent him to a Jesuit college
at Bourges, but
he here secretly read the writings of Beranger and
Courier. He
studied law, but abandoned it for literature, writing in
many papers. He
also wrote popular dramas, as The Rag-picker of Paris,
'47. After '52
he lived in England, where he wrote an apology for
the attempt of
Orsini, published by Truelove, '58. In '71 he founded
the journal le
Combat. Elected to the National Assembly he protested
against the
treaty of peace, was named member of the Commune and
condemned to
death in '73. He returned to France after the armistice,
and has sat as
deputy for Marseilles. Died, Saint Gerainte near Nice,
3 Aug. 1889.
Pyrrho. Greek
philosopher, a native of Elis, in Peloponesus, founder of
a sceptical
school about the time of Epicurus; is said to have been
attracted to
philosophy by the books of Democritus. He attached himself
to Anaxarchus,
and joined her in the expedition of Alexander the Great,
and became
acquainted with the philosophy of the Magi and the Indian
Gymnosophists.
He taught the wisdom of doubt, the uncertainty of all
things, and the
rejection of speculation. His disciples extolled his
equanimity and
independence of externals. It is related that he kept
house with his
sister, and shared with her in all domestic duties. He
reached the age
of ninety years, and after his death the Athenians
honored him
with a statue. He left no writings, but the tenets of his
school, which
were much misrepresented, may be gathered from Sextus
and Empiricus.
Quental. See
Anthero de Quental.
"Quepat
(Nérée.") See Paquet (René).
Quesnay
(François), French economist, b. Mérey, 4 June 1694. Self
educated he
became a physician, but is chiefly noted for his Tableau
Economique,
1708, and his doctrine of Laissez Faire. He derived moral
and social
rules from physical laws. Died Versailles, 16 Dec. 1774.
Quinet (Edgar),
French writer, b. Bourgen Bresse, 17 Feb. 1803. He
attracted the
notice of Cousin by a translation of Herder's The
Philosophy of
History. With his friend Michelet he made many attacks
on Catholicism,
the Jesuits being their joint work. He fought in
the Revolution
of '48, and opposed the Second Empire. His work on
The Genius of
Religion, '42, is profound, though mystical, and his
historical work
on The Revolution, '65 is a masterpiece. Died at
Versailles, 27
March, 1875.
Quintin (Jean),
Heretic of Picardy, and alleged founder of the
Libertines. He
is said to have preached in Holland and Brabant in
1525, that
religion was a human invention. Quintin was arrested and
burnt at
Tournay in 1530.
Quris
(Charles), French advocate of Angers, who has published some
works on law
and La Défense Catholique et la Critique, Paris, 1864.
Rabelais
(François), famous and witty French satirist and philosopher,
b. Chinon,
Touraine, 7 Jan. 1495. At an early age he joined the order
of Franciscans,
but finding monastic life incompatible with his genial
temper, quitted
the convent without the leave of his superior. He
studied
medicine at Montpelier about 1530, after which he practised
at Lyons. His
great humorous work, published anonymously in 1535, was
denounced as
heretical by the clergy for its satires, not only on their
order but their
creed. The author was protected by Francis I. and was
appointed curé
of Meudon. Died at Paris, 9 April, 1553. His writings
show surprising
fertility of mind, and Coleridge says, "Beyond a
doubt he was
among the deepest as well as boldest thinkers of his age."
Radenhausen
(Christian), German philosopher, b. Friedrichstadt, 3
Dec. 1813. At
first a merchant and then a lithographer, he resided
at Hamburg,
where he published Isis, Mankind and the World (4 vols.),
'70-72; Osiris,
'74; The New Faith, '77; Christianity is Heathenism,
'81; The True
Bible and the False, '87; Esther, '87.
Radicati
(Alberto di), Count. See Passerano.
Ragon (Jean
Marie de), French Freemason, b. Bray-sur-Seine, 1781. By
profession a
civil engineer at Nancy, afterwards Chief of Bureau to
the Minister of
the Interior. Author of many works on Freemasonry,
and The Mass
and its Mysteries Compared with the Ancient Mysteries,
1844. Died at
Paris, 1862.
Ram (Joachim
Gerhard), Holstein philosopher of the seventeenth century,
who was accused
of Atheism.
Ramaer (Anton
Gerard Willem), Dutch writer b. Jever, East Friesland,
2 Aug. 1812.
From '29 he served as officer in the Dutch army. He
afterwards
became a tax collector, and in '60 was pensioned. He wrote
on Schopenhauer
and other able works, and also contributed largely
to De Dageraad,
often under the pseudonym of "Laçhmé." He had a noble
mind and
sacrificed much for his friends and the good cause. Died 16
Feb. 1867.
Ramee (Louise
de la), English novelist, b., of French extraction,
Bury St.
Edmunds, 1840. Under the name of "Ouida," a little sister's
mispronunciation
of Louisa, she has published many popular novels,
exhibiting her
free and pessimistic opinions. We mention Tricotin,
Folle Farine,
Signa, Moths and A Village Commune. She has lived much
in Italy, where
the scenes of several novels are placed.
Ramee (Pierre
de la) called Ramus, French humanist, b. Cuth
(Vermandois)
1515. He attacked the doctrines of Aristotle, was accused
of impiety, and
his work suppressed 1543. He lost his life in the
massacre of St.
Bartholomew, 26 Aug. 1572.
Ramsey (William
James), b. London, 8 June, 1844. Becoming a Freethinker
early in life,
he for some time sold literature at the Hall of Science
and became
manager of the Freethought Publishing Co. Starting in
business for
himself he published the Freethinker, for which in '82
he was
prosecuted with Mr. Foote and Mr. Kemp. Tried in March '83,
after a good
defence, he was sentenced to nine months' imprisonment,
and on Mr.
Foote's release acted as printer of the paper.
Ranc (Arthur),
French writer and deputy, b. Poitiers, 10 Dec. 1831,
and was brought
up a Freethinker and Republican by his parents. He
took the prize
for philosophy at the College of Poitiers, and studied
law at Paris.
He conspired with C. Delescluze against the Second
Empire and was
imprisoned, but escaped to Geneva. He collaborated on
La
Marseillaise, was elected on the Municipal Council of Paris in
'71, and
Deputy, '73. Has written Under the Empire and many other
political
works.
Randello
(Cosimo), Italian author of The Simple Story of a Great
Fraud, being a
criticism of the origin of Christianity, directed
against Pauline
theology, published at Milan, 1882.
Rapisardi
(Mario), Italian poet, b. Catania, Sicily, 1843. Has
translated
Lucretius, '80, and published poems on Lucifer, and The
Last Prayer of
Pius IX., '71, etc.
Raspail
(François Vincent), French chemist and politician b. Carpentras
24 Jan. 1794,
was brought up by ecclesiastics and intended for the
Church. He
became, while quite young, professor of philosophy at the
theological
seminary of Avignon but an examination of theological
dogmas led to
their rejection. He went to Paris, and from 1815-24 gave
lessons, and
afterwards became a scientific lecturer. He took part
in the
Revolution of '30. Louis Philippe offered him the Legion of
Honor but he
refused. Taking part in all the revolutionary outbreaks
he was
frequently imprisoned. Elected to the chamber in '69 and sat
on the extreme
left. Died at Arcueil 6 Jan. 1878.
Rau (Herbert),
German rationalist b. Frankfort 11 Feb. 1813. He studied
theology and
became preacher to free congregations in Stuttgart and
Mannheim. He
wrote Gospel of Nature, A Catechism of the Religion of
the Future, and
other works. Died Frankfort 26 Sept. 1876.
Rawson (Albert
Leighton) LL.D. American traveller and author,
b. Chester,
Vermont 15 Oct. 1829. After studying law, theology, and
art, he made
four visits to the East, and made in '51-2 a pilgrimage
from Cairo to
Mecca, disguised as a Mohammedan student of medicine. He
has published
many maps and typographical and philological works,
and illustrated
Beecher's Life of Jesus. Has also written on
the Antiquities
of the Orient, New York, '70, and Chorography of
Palestine,
London, '80. Has written in the Freethinkers' Magazine,
maintaining
that the Bible account of the twelve tribes of Israel
is
non-historical.
Raynal
(Guillaume Thomas François) l'abbé, French historian and
philosopher, b.
Saint Geniez, 12 April, 1713. He was brought up as a
priest but
renounced that profession soon after his removal to Paris,
1747, where he
became intimate with Helvetius, Holbach, etc. With
the assistance
of these, and Diderot, Pechmeja, etc., he compiled a
philosophical
History of European establishments in the two Indies
(4 vols. 1770
and 1780), a work full of reflections on the religious
and political
institutions of France. It made a great outcry, was
censured by the
Sorbonne, and was burnt by order of Parliament 29 May,
1781. Raynal
escaped and passed about six years in exile. Died near
Paris, 6 March,
1796.
Reade (William
Winwood), English traveller and writer, nephew of
Charles Reade
the novelist, b. Murrayfield, near Crieff, Scotland,
26 Dec. 1824.
He studied at Oxford, then travelled much in the heart
of Africa, and
wrote Savage Africa, '63, The African Sketch Book,
and in '73, The
Story of the Ashantee Campaign; which he accompanied
as Times
correspondent. In the Martyrdom of Man ('72), he rejects
the doctrine of
a personal creator. It went through several editions
and is still
worth reading. He also wrote Liberty Hall, a novel,
'60; The Veil
of Isis, '61, and See Saw, a novel, '65. He wrote his
last work The
Outcast, a Freethought novel, with the hand of death
upon him. Died
24 April, 1875.
Reber (George),
American author of The Christ of Paul, or the Enigmas
of Christianity
(New York, 1876), a work in which he exposes the
frauds and
follies of the early fathers.
Reclus (Jean
Jacques Elisée), French geographer and socialist, the
son of a
Protestant minister, b. Sainte-Foy-la-Grande (Gironde), 15
March, 1830,
and educated by the Moravian brethren, and afterwards at
Berlin. He
early distinguished himself by his love for liberty, and
left France
after the coup d'état of 2 Dec. '51, and travelled till '57
in England,
Ireland, and the North and South America, devoting himself
to studying the
social and political as well as physical condition of
the countries
he visited, the results being published in the Tour du
monde, and
Revue des Deux Mondes, in which he upheld the cause of the
North during the
American war. In '71 he supported the Commune and was
taken prisoner
and sentenced to transportation for life. Many eminent
men in England
and America interceded and his sentence was commuted
to banishment.
At the amnesty of March '79, he returned to Paris,
and has devoted
himself to the publication of a standard Universal
Geography in 13
vols. In '82 he gave two of his daughters in marriage
without either
religious or civil ceremony. He has written a preface
to Bakounin's
God and the State, and many other works.
Reddalls
(George Holland), English Secularist, b. Birmingham,
Nov. 1846. He
became a compositor on the Birmingham Daily Post, but
wishing to
conduct a Freethought paper started in business for himself,
and issued the
Secular Chronicle, '73, which was contributed to by
Francis Neale,
H. V. Mayer, G. Standring, etc. He died 13 Oct. 1875.
Reghillini de
Schio (M.), Professor of Chemistry and Mathematics,
b. of Venetian
parents at Schio in 1760. He wrote in French an
able exposition
of Masonry, 1833, which he traced to Egypt; and an
Examination of
Mosaism and Christianity, '34. He was mixed in the
troubles of
Venice in '48, and fled to Belgium, dying in poverty at
Brussels Aug.
1853.
Regnard (Albert
Adrien), French doctor and publicist, b. Lachante
(Nièvre), 20
March, 1836, author of Essais d'Histoire et de
Critique
Scientifique (Paris, '65)--a work for which he could
find no
publisher, and had to issue himself--in which he proclaimed
scientific
materialism. Losing his situation, he started, with Naquet
and Clemenceau,
the Revue Encyclopédique, which being suppressed
on its first
number, he started La Libre Pensée with Asseline,
Condereau, etc.
His articles in this journal drew on him and Eudes
a condemnation
of four months' imprisonment. He wrote New Researches
on Cerebral
Congestion, '68, and was one of the French delegates to
the
anti-Council of Naples, '69. Has published Atheism, studies of
political
science, dated Londres, '78; a History of England since 1815;
and has
translated Büchner's Force and Matter, '84. He was delegate
to the
Freethinkers' International Congress at Antwerp, '85.
Regnard (Jean
François), French comic poet, b. Paris. 8 Feb. 1655. He
went to Italy
about 1676, and on returning home was captured by an
Algerian
corsair and sold as a slave. Being caught in an intrigue
with one of the
women, he was required to turn Muhammadan. The French
consul paid his
ransom and he returned to France about 1681. He wrote
a number of
successful comedies and poems, and was made a treasurer
of France. He
died as an Epicurean, 4 Sept. 1709.
Regnier
(Mathurin), French satirical poet, b. Chartres, 21
Dec. 1573.
Brought up for the Church, he showed little inclination for
its
austerities, and was in fact a complete Pagan, though he obtained
a canonry in the
cathedral of his native place. Died at Rouen, 22
Oct. 1613.
Reich (Eduard)
Dr., German physician and anthropologist of Sclav
descent on his
father's side, b. Olmütz, 6 March 1839. He studied at
Jena and has
travelled much, and published over thirty volumes besides
editing the
Athenæum of Jena '75, and Universities of Grossenbain,
'83. Of his
works we mention Man and the Soul, '72; The Church of
Humanity, '74;
Life of Man as an Individual, '81; History of the Soul,
'84; The
Emancipation of Women, '84.
Reil (Johann
Christian), German physician, b. Rauden, East Friesland,
20 Feb. 1758.
Intended for the Church, he took instead to medicine;
after
practising some years in his native town he went in 1787
to Halle, and
in 1810 he was made Professor of Medicine at Berlin
University. He
wrote many medical works, and much advanced medical
science,
displacing the old ideas in a way which brought on him the
accusation of
pantheism. Attending a case of typhus fever at Halle
he was attacked
by the malady, and succumbed 22 Nov. 1813.
Reimarus
(Hermann Samuel), German philologist, b. Hamburg, 22
Dec. 1694. He
was a son-in-law of J. A. Fabricus. Studied at Jena and
Wittenberg;
travelled in Holland and England; and was appointed rector
of the
gymnasium in Weimar, 1723, and in Hamburg, 1729. He was one of
the most
radical among German rationalists. He published a work on
The Principle
Truths of Natural Religion, 1754, and left behind the
Wolfenbüttel
Fragments, published by Lessing in 1777. Died at Hamburg,
1 March, 1768.
Strauss has written an account of his services, 1862.
Reitzel
(Robert), German American revolutionary, b. Baden, 1849. Named
after Blum,
studied theology, went to America, walked from New
York to
Baltimore, and was minister to an independent Protestant
church. Studied
biology and resigned as a minister, and became speaker
of a
Freethought congregation at Washington for seven years. Is now
editor of Der
Arme Teufel of Detroit, and says he "shall be a poor
man and a
Revolutionaire all my life."
Remsburg (John
E.), American lecturer and writer, b. 1848. Has
written a
series of pamphlets entitled The Image Breaker, False
Claims of the
Christian Church, '83, Sabbath Breaking, Thomas Paine,
and a vigorous
onslaught on Bible Morals, instancing twenty crimes
and vices
sanctioned by scripture, '85.
Renan (Joseph
Ernest), learned French writer, b. Tréguier (Brittany)
27 Feb. 1823.
Was intended for the Church and went to Paris to
study. He
became noted for his linguistic attainment, but his
studies and
independence of thought did not accord with his intended
profession. My
faith, he says was destroyed not by metaphysics
nor philosophy
but by historical criticism. In '45 he gave up all
thoughts of an
ecclesiastic career and became a teacher. In '48
he gained the
Volney prize, for a memoir on the Semitic Languages,
afterwards
amplified into a work on that subject. In '52 he published
his work on
Averroës and Averroïsm. In '56 was elected member of
the Academy of
Inscriptions, and in '60 sent on a mission to Syria;
having in the
meantime published a translation of Job and Song of
Songs. Here he
wrote his long contemplated Vie de Jesus, '63. In
'61 he had been
appointed Professor of Hebrew in the Institute of
France, but
denounced by bishops and clergy he was deprived of his
chair, which
was, however, restored in '70. The Pope did not disdain
to attack him
personally as a "French blasphemer." The Vie de Jesus
is part of a
comprehensive History of the Origin of Christianity, in
8 vols.,
'63-83, which includes The Apostles, St Paul, Anti-Christ,
The Gospels,
The Christian Church, and Marcus Aurelius, and the end
of the Antique
World. Among his other works we must mention Studies on
Religious
History ('58), Philosophical Dialogues and Fragments ('76),
Spinoza ('77),
Caliban, a satirical drama ('80), the Hibbert Lecture
on the
Influence of Rome on Christians, Souvenirs, '84; New Studies
of Religious
History,'84; The Abbess of Jouarre, a drama which made
a great
sensation in '86; and The History of the People of Israel,
'87-89.
Renand (Paul),
Belgian author of a work entitled Nouvelle Symbolique,
on the identity
of Christianity and Paganism, published at Brussels
in 1861.
Rengart (Karl
Fr.), of Berlin, b. 1803, democrat and freethought
friend of C.
Deubler. Died about 1879.
Renard
(Georges), French professor of the Academie of Lausanne;
author of Man,
is he Free? 1881, and a Life of Voltaire, '83.
Renouvier
(Charles Bernard), French philosopher, b. Montpellier,
1815. An ardent
Radical and follower of the critical philosophy. Among
his works are
Manual of Ancient Philosophy (2 vols., '44); Republican
Manual, '48;
Essays of General Criticism, '54; Science of Morals, '69;
a translation,
made with F. Pillon, of Hume's Psychology, '78; and A
Sketch of a
Systematic Classification of Philosophical Doctrines, '85.
Renton
(William), English writer, b. Edinburgh, 1852. Educated in
Germany. Wrote
poems entitled Oil and Water Colors, and a work on The
Logic of Style,
'74. At Keswick he published Jesus, a psychological
estimate of
that hero, '76. Has since published a romance of the last
generation
called Bishopspool, '83.
Rethore
(François), French professor of philosophy at the Lyceum of
Marseilles, b.
Amiens, 1822. Author of a work entitled Condillac,
or Empiricism
and Rationalism, '64. Has translated H. Spencer's
Classification
of Sciences.
Reuschle (Karl
Gustav), German geographer, b. Mehrstetten, 12
Dec. 1812. He
wrote on Kepler and Astronomy, '71, and Philosophy and
Natural
Science, '74, dedicated to the memory of D. F. Strauss. Died
at Stuttgart,
22 May, 1875.
Revillon
(Antoine, called Tony), French journalist and deputy,
b.
Saint-Laurent-les Mâcon (Ain), 29 Dec. 1832. At first a lawyer in
'57, he went to
Paris, where he has written on many journals, and
published many
romances and brochures. In '81 he was elected deputy.
Rey (Marc
Michel), printer and bookseller of Amsterdam. He printed
all the works
of d'Holbach and Rousseau and some of Voltaire's,
and conducted
the Journal des Savans.
Reynaud
(Antoine Andre Louis), Baron, French mathematician, b. Paris,
12 Sept. 1777.
In 1790 he became one of the National Guard of Paris. He
was teacher and
examiner for about thirty years in the Polytechnic
School. A
friend of Lalande. Died Paris, 24 Feb. 1844.
Reynaud (Jean
Ernest), French philosopher, b. Lyons, 14 Feb. 1806. For
a time he was a
Saint Simonian. In '36 he edited with P. Leroux the
Encyclopédie
Nouvelle. He was a moderate Democrat in the Assembly
of '48. His
chief work, entitled Earth and Heaven, '54, had great
success. It was
formally condemned by a clerical council held at
Périgueux. Died
Paris, 28 June, 1863.
Reynolds
(Charles B.), American lecturer, b. 4 Aug. 1832. Was
brought up
religiously, and became a Seventh Day Baptist preacher,
but was
converted to Freethought. He was prosecuted for blasphemy
at Morristown,
New Jersey, May 19, 20, 1887, and was defended by
Col. Ingersoll.
The verdict was one of guilty, and the sentence was
a paltry fine
of 25 dollars. Has written in the Boston Investigator,
Truthseeker,
and Ironclad Age.
Reynolds
(George William MacArthur), English writer; author of many
novels. Wrote
Errors of the Christian Religion, 1832.
Rialle (J.
Girard de), French anthropologist, b. Paris 1841. He
wrote in La
Pensée Nouvelle, conducted the Revue de Linguistique et
de Philologie
comparée, and has written on Comparative Mythology,
dealing with
fetishism, etc., '78, and works on Ethnology.
Ribelt
(Léonce), French publicist, b. Bordeaux 1824, author of several
political works
and collaborator on La Morale Indépendante.
Ribeyrolles
(Charles de), French politician, b. near Martel (Lot)
1812. Intended
for the Church, he became a social democrat; edited the
Emancipation of
Toulouse, and La Réforme in '48. A friend of V. Hugo,
he shared in
his exile at Jersey. Died at Rio-Janeiro, 13 June, 1861.
Ribot
(Théodule), French philosopher, b. Guingamp (Côtes du-Nord)
1839; has
written Contemporary English Psychology '70, a resume of
the views of
Mill, Bain, and Spencer, whose Principles of Psychology
he has
translated. Has also written on Heredity, '73; The Philosophy
of
Schopenhauer, '74; The maladies of Memory, personality and Will,
3 vols.; and
Contemporary German Psychology. He conducts the Revue
Philosophique.
Ricciardi
(Giuseppe Napoleone), Count, Italian patriot, b. Capodimonte
(Naples), 19
July, 1808, son of Francesco Ricciardi, Count of
Camaldoli,
1758-1842. Early in life he published patriotic poems. He
says that never
after he was nineteen did he kneel before a priest. In
'32 he founded
at Naples Il Progresso, a review of science, literature,
and art.
Arrested in '34 as a Republican conspirator, he was imprisoned
eight months
and then lived in exile in France until '48. Here he
wrote in the
Revue Indépendante, pointing out that the Papacy from
its very
essence was incompatible with liberty. Elected deputy to the
Neapolitan
Parliament, he sat on the extreme left. He wrote a History
of the
Revolution of Italy in '48 (Paris '49). Condemned to death in
'53, his
fortune was seized. He wrote an Italian Martyrology from
1792-1847 (Turin
'56), and The Pope and Italy, '62. At the time of the
Ecumenical
Council he called an Anti-council of Freethinkers at Naples,
'69. This was
dissolved by the Italian government, but it led to the
International
Federation of Freethinkers. Count Ricciardi published
an account of
the congress. His last work was a life of his friend
Mauro Macchi,
'82. Died 1884.
Richepin
(Jean), French poet, novelist, and dramatist, b. Médéah
(Algeria) in
1849. He began life as a doctor, and during the
Franco-German
war took to journalism. In '76 he published the Song
of the Beggars,
which was suppressed. In '84 appeared Les Blasphèmes,
which has gone
through several editions.
Richer (Léon),
French Deist and journalist, b. Laigh, 1824. He was
with A.
Guéroult editor of l'Opinion Nationale, and in '69 founded and
edits L'Avenir
des Femmes. In '68 he published Letters of a Freethinker
to a Village
Priest, and has written many volumes in favor of the
emancipation of
women, collaborating with Mdlle. Desraismes in the
Women's Rights
congresses held in Paris.
Rickman (Thomas
Clio), English Radical. He published several volumes
of poems and a
life of his friend Thomas Paine, 1819, of whom he
also published
an excellent portrait painted by Romney and engraved
by Sharpe.
Riem (Andreas),
German rationalist b. Frankenthal 1749. He became
a preacher, and
was appointed by Frederick the Great chaplain of a
hospital at
Berlin. This he quitted in order to become secretary of the
Academy of
Painting. He wrote anonymously on the Aufklaring. Died 1807.
Ritter
(Charles), Swiss writer b. Geneva 1838, and has translated into
French
Strauss's Essay of Religious History, George Eliot's Fragments
and Thoughts,
and Zeller's Christian Baur and the Tübingen School.
Roalfe
(Matilda), a brave woman, b. 1813. At the time of the blasphemy
prosecutions in
1843, she went from London to Edinburgh to uphold
the right of
free publication. She opened a shop and circulated a
manifesto
setting forth her determination to sell works she deemed
useful
"whether they did or did not bring into contempt the Holy
Scriptures and
the Christian Religion." When prosecuted for selling The
Age of Reason,
The Oracle of Reason, etc., she expressed her intention
of continuing
her offence as soon as liberated. She was sentenced to
two months
imprisonment 23 Jan. '44, and on her liberation continued
the sale of the
prosecuted works. She afterwards married Mr. Walter
Sanderson and
settled at Galashiels, where she died 29 Nov. 1880.
Robert (Pierre
François Joseph), French conventionnel and friend of
Brissot and
Danton, b. Gimnée (Ardennes) 21 Jan. 1763. Brought up
to the law he
became professor of public law to the philosophical
society. He was
nominated deputy for Paris, and wrote Republicanism
adapted to
France, 1790, became secretary to Danton, and voted for the
death of the
king. He wrote in Prudhomme's Révolutions de Paris. Died
at Brussels
1826.
Robertson (A.
D.), editor of the Free Enquirer, published at New
York, 1835.
Robertson (John
Mackinnon), Scotch critic, b. Arran, 14 Nov. 1856. He
became
journalist on the Edinburgh Evening News, and afterwards on
the National
Reformer. Mr. Robertson has published a study of Walt
Whitman in the
"Round Table Series." Essays towards a Critical Method,
'89, and has
contributed to Our Corner, Time, notably an article on
Mithraism,
March, '89, The Westminster Review, etc. He has also issued
pamphlets on
Socialism and Malthusianism, and Toryism and Barbarism,
'85, and edited
Hume's Essay on Natural Religion, '89.
Roberty (Eugène
de), French positivist writer, of Russian birth,
b. Podolia
(Russia), 1843; author of works on Sociology, Paris, '81,
and The Old and
the New Philosophy, an essay on the general laws of
philosophic
development, '87. He has recently written a work entitled
The Unknowable,
'89.
Robin (Charles
Philippe), French physician, senator member of the
Institute and
of the Academy of Medecine, b. Jasseron (Aix), 4 June,
1821. Became
M.D. in '46, and D.Sc. '47. In company with Littré he
refounded
Nysten's Dictionary of Medicine, and he has written many
important
medical works, and one on Instruction. In '72 his name was
struck out of
the list of jurors on the ground of his unbelief in God,
and it thus
remained despite many protests until '76. In the same
year he was
elected Senator, and sits with the Republican Left. He
has been
decorated with the Legion of Honor.
Robinet (Jean
Baptiste René), French philosopher, b. Rennes, 23 June,
1735. He became
a Jesuit, but gave it up and went to Holland to publish
his curious
work, De la Nature, 1776, by some attributed to Toussaint
and to Diderot.
He continued Marsy's Analysis of Bayle, edited the
Secret Letters
of Voltaire, translated Hume's Moral Essays, and took
part in the
Recueil Philosophique, published by J. L. Castilhon. Died
at Rennes, 24
March, 1820.
Robinet (Jean
Eugène François), French physician and publicist,
b.
Vic-sur-Seille, 1825. He early attached himself to the person
and doctrine of
Auguste Comte, and became his physician and one of
his executors.
During the war of '70 he was made Mayor of the Sixth
Arrondissement
of Paris. He has written a Notice of the Work and
Life of A.
Comte, '60, a memoir of the private life of Danton, '65,
The Trial of
the Dantonists, '79, and contributed an account of the
Positive
Philosophy of A. Comte and P. Lafitte to the "Bibliothèque
Utile,"
vol. 66, '81.
Roell (Hermann
Alexander), German theologian, b. 1653, author of a
Deistic
dissertation on natural religion, published at Frankfort in
1700. Died
Amsterdam, 12 July, 1718.
Rogeard (Louis
Auguste), French publicist, b. Chartres, 25 April,
1820. Became a
teacher but was dismissed for refusing to attend
mass. In '49 he
moved to Paris and took part in the revolutionary
movement. He
was several times imprisoned under the Empire, and in
'65 was
sentenced to five years' imprisonment for writing Les Propos
de Labienus
(London, i.e. Zürich), '65. He fled to Belgium and wrote
some excellent
criticism on the Bible in the Rive Gauche. In '71
he assisted
Pyat on Le Vengeur, and was elected on the Commune but
declined to
sit. An incisive writer, he signed himself "Atheist." Is
still living in
Paris.
Rokitansky
(Karl), German physician and scientist, founder of the
Viennese school
in medicine, b. Königgrätz (Bohemia) 11 Feb. 1804,
studied
medicine at Prague and Vienna, and received his degree of
Doctor in '28.
His principal work is a Manual of Practical Anatomy,
'42-6. Died
Vienna, 23 July, 1878.
Roland (Marie
Jeanne), née Phlipon, French patriot, b. Paris, 17 March,
1754. Fond of
reading, Plutarch's Lives influenced her greatly. At
a convent she
noted the names of sceptics attached and read their
writings,
being, she says, in turn Jansenist, stoic, sceptic, atheist,
and deist. The
last she remained, though Miss Blind classes her with
Agnostics.
After her marriage in 1779 with Jean Marie Roland de la
Platiêre (b.
Lyons, 1732), Madame Roland shared the tasks and studies
of her husband,
and the Revolution found her an ardent consort. On
the appointment
of her husband to the ministry, she became the centre
of a Girondist
circle. Carlyle calls her "the creature of Simplicity
and Nature, in
an age of Artificiality, Pollution, and Cant," and
"the
noblest of all living Frenchwomen." On the fall of her party
she was
imprisoned, and finally executed, 8 Nov. 1793. Her husband,
then in hiding,
hearing of her death, deliberately stabbed himself,
15 Nov. 1793.
Rolph (William
Henry), German philosopher, b. of English father,
Berlin, 26 Aug.
1847. He became privat-docent of Zoology in the
University of
Leipsic, and wrote an able work on Biological Problems,
'84, in which
he accepts evolution, discards theology, and places
ethics on a
natural basis. Died 1 Aug. 1883.
Romagnosi
(Giovanni Domenico), Italian philosopher and jurist,
b. Salso
Maggiore, 13 Dec. 1761. He published in 1791 an able work
on penal
legislation, Genesis of Penal Law, many pages of which are
borrowed from
d'Holbach's System of Nature. He became Professor of
Law in Parma,
Milan, and Pavia. A member of the Italian Academy,
he was named
professor at Corfu, where he died 8 June, 1835. In
'21 he wrote
Elements of Philosophy, followed by What is a Sound
Mind? ('27) and
Ancient Moral Philosophy, '32. A somewhat obscure
writer, he
nevertheless contributed to the positive study of sociology.
Romiti
(Guglielmo), Italian Positivist. Professor of Anatomy in the
University of
Siena. Has published Anatomical Notes, and a Discourse
which excited
some commotion among the theologians.
Romme
(Gilbert), French Mathematician, b. Riou, 1750, became deputy
to the
Legislative Assembly in 1791, and to the Convention in 1792. In
Sept. 1793 he
introduced the new Republican Calendar, the plan of which
was drawn by
Lalande, and the names assigned by Fabre d'Eglantine. He
advocated the
Fêtes of Reason. Being condemned to death, he committed
suicide, 18
June, 1795. His brother Charles, b. 1744, was also an
eminent
geometrician, and a friend of Laland. He died 15 June, 1805.
Ronge
(Johannes), German religious reformer, b. Bischopwalde
(Silesia), 16
Oct. 1813. He entered the seminary of Breslau,
and became a
Catholic priest in '40. His liberal views and bold
preaching soon
led to his suspension. In '44 his letter denouncing the
worship of
"the holy coat," exhibited by Arnoldi, Bishop of Treves,
made much
clamor. Excommunicated by the Church, he found many free
congregations,
but was proscribed after the revolution of '49 and took
refuge in
England. In '51 he issued a revolutionary manifesto. In
'61 he returned
to Frankfort, and in '73 settled at Darmstadt. Died
at Vienna, 25
Oct. 1887.
Ronsard (Pierre),
French poet, b. of noble family 11 Sept. 1524. He
became page to
the Duke of Orleans, and afterwards to James V. of
Scotland.
Returning to France, he was a great favorite at the French
Court. Died 27
Dec. 1585.
Roorda van
Eysinga (Sicco Ernst Willem), Dutch positivist, b.
(Java), 8 Aug.
1825. He served as engineer at Java, and was expelled
about '64 for
writing on behalf of the Javanese. He contributed
to the De
Dageraad and Revue Positive. Died Clarens (Switzerland),
23 Oct. 1887.
Roquetaillade
(Jean de la), also known as Rupescina, early French
reformer of
Auvillac (Auvergne), who entered the order of the
Franciscans.
His bold discourses led to his imprisonment at Avignon
1356, by order
of Innocent VI., when he wrote an apology. Accused
of Magic,
Nostradamus says he was burnt at Avignon in 1362, but this
has been
disputed.
Rose (Charles
H.), formerly of Adelaide, Australia, author of A Light
to Lighten the
Gentiles, 1881.
Rose (Ernestine
Louise) née Süsmond Potowsky, Radical reformer
and orator, b.
Peterkov (Poland), 13 Jan. 1810. Her father was
a Jewish Rabbi.
From early life she was of a bold and inquiring
disposition. At
the age of 17 she went to Berlin. She was in Paris
during the
Revolution of '30. Soon after she came to England where she
embraced the
views of Robert Owen, who called her his daughter. Here
she married Mr.
William E. Rose, a gentleman of broad Liberal views. In
May '36, they
went to the United States and became citizens of the
Republic. Mrs.
Rose lectured in all the states on the social system,
the formation
of character, priestcraft, etc. She lectured against
slavery in the
slave-owning states and sent in '38 the first petition
to give married
women the right to hold real estate. She was one
of the
inaugurators of the Woman's Rights Movement, and a constant
champion of
Freethought. An eloquent speaker, some of her addresses
have been
published. Defence of Atheism, Women's Rights and Speech
at the Hartford
Bible Convention in '54. About '73 she returned to
England where she
still lives. One of her last appearances at public
was at the
Conference of Liberal Thinkers at South Place Chapel in
'76, where she
delivered a pointed speech. Mrs. Rose has a fine face
and head, and
though aged and suffering, retains the utmost interest
in the
Freethought cause.
Roskoff (Georg
Gustav), German rationalist, b. Presburg, Hungary, 30
Aug. 1814. He
studied theology and philosophy at Halle, and has written
works on Hebrew
Antiquity, '57. The Samson legend and Herakles myth,
'60, and a standard
History of the Devil in 2 vols., Leipzig, '69.
Ross (William
Stewart), Scotch writer, b. 20 Mar. 1844. Author of
poems and
educational works, and editor of Secular Review, now The
Agnostic
Journal. Wrote God and his Book, '87, and several brochures
published under
the pen name of "Saladin."
Rosseau (Leon),
French writer in the Rationalist of Geneva under the
name of L.
Russelli. He published separately the Female Followers of
Jesus, founded
the Horizon, contributed to la Libre Pensée, and was
editor of
l'Athée. Died 1870.
Rossetti (Dante
Gabriel), poet and painter, b. of Italian parents,
London, 12 May,
1828. Educated at King's College, he became a student
at the Royal
Academy and joined the pre-Raphaelites. As a poet
artist he
exhibited the richest gifts of originality, earnestness,
and splendour
of expression. Died at Westgate on Sea, 9 April, 1882.
Rossetti
(William Michael) critic and man of letters, brother of
the preceding,
b. London, 25 Sep. 1829. Educated at King's College,
he became
assistant secretary in the Inland Revenue Office. He has
acted as critic
for many papers and edited many works, the chief being
an edition of
Shelley, '70, with a memoir and numerous notes. He is
Chairman of the
Committee of the Shelley Society.
Rossmaessler
(Emil Adolf), German naturalist b. Leipsic 3 March,
1806. Studied
theology, but abandoned it for science, and wrote many
scientific
works of repute. In '48 he was elected to Parliament. Among
his writings
are Man in the Mirror of Nature. '49-55. The History of
the Earth, '68.
Died as a philosopher 8 April, 1867.
Roth (Julius),
Dr., German author of Religion and Priestcraft, Leipzig,
1869;
Jesuitism, '71.
Rothenbuecher
(Adolph), Dr., German author of an able little Handbook
of Morals,
written from the Secular standpoint, Cottbus, 1884.
Rotteck (Karl
Wenceslaus von), German historian and statesman
b. Freiburg 18
July, 1775. Studied in his native town, where in
1798 be became
Professor of History. In 1819 he represented his
University in
the States of Baden, where he distinguished himself by
his liberal
views. He was forbidden by government to edit any paper
and was
deprived of his chair. This persecution hastened his death,
which occurred
26 Nov 1840. Rotteck's General History of the World
(9 vols., 1827)
was very popular and gave one of the broadest views
of history
which had then appeared.
Rousseau (Jean
Jacques), Swiss philosopher, b. Geneva, 28 June,
1712. After a
varied career he went to Paris in 1741 and supported
himself. In
1751 he obtained a prize from the academy of Dijon for
negative answer
to the question "whether the re-establishment of the
arts and
sciences has conduced to the purity of morals." This success
prompted
further literary efforts. He published a dictionary of music,
the New Heloise
(1759), a love story in the form of letters, which
had great
success, and Emilius (May 1762), a moral romance, in which
he condemns
other education than that of following nature. In this
work occurs his
Confession of Faith of a Savoyard Vicar, discarding
the supernatural
element in Christianity. The French parliament
condemned the
book 9 June, 1762, and prosecuted the writer, who fled
to Switzerland.
Pope Clement XVIII fulminated against Emile, and
Rousseau
received so many insults on account of his principles that
he returned to
Paris and on the invitation of Hume came to England
in Jan. 1766.
He knew little English and soon took offence with
Hume, and asked
permission to return to Paris, which he obtained on
condition of
never publishing anything more. He however completed his
Confessions, of
which he had previously composed the first six books
in England.
Rousseau was a sincere sentimentalist, an independent
and eloquent,
but not deep thinker. His captious temper spoiled his
own life, but
his influence has been profound and far-reaching. Died
near Paris, 2
July, 1778.
Rouzade
(Leonie) Madame, French Freethought lecturess. Has written
several
brochures and novels, notably Le Monde Renversé, 1872,
and Ci et ca,
ca et la, ideas upon moral philosophy and social
progress.
Writes in Malon's Revue Socialiste, and is one of the
editors of Les
Droits des Femmes.
Roy (Joseph),
French translator of Feuerbach's Essence of Christianity,
1864, and
Religion, Death, Immortality, '66. Has also translated
Marx's Capital.
Royer (Clemence
Auguste), French authoress, b. Nantes, 24 April, 1830,
of Catholic
royalist family. Visiting England in '54, she studied our
language and
literature. Going to Switzerland, in '59 she opened at
Lausanne a
course of logic and philosophy for women. In '60 she shared
with Proudhon
in a prize competition on the subject of taxation. In
'62 she
translated Darwin's Origin of Species, with a bold preface
and notes. In
'64 her philosophical romance The Twins of Hellas
appeared at
Brussels, and was interdicted in France. Her ablest work
is on The
Origin of Man and of Societies, '69. In this she states
the scientific
view of human evolution, and challenges the Christian
creed. This was
followed by many memoirs, Pre-historic Funeral Rites,
'76; Two
Hypotheses of Heredity, '77; The Good and the Moral Law,
'81. Mdlle.
Royer has contributed to the Revue Moderne, Revue de
Philosophie,
Positive, Revue d'Anthropologie, etc., and has assisted
and spoken at
many political, social, and scientific meetings.
Rüdt (P. A.),
Ph. D., German lecturer and "apostle of unbelief,"
b. Mannheim, 8
Dec. 1844. Educated at Mannheim and Carlsruhe, he
studied
philosophy, philology, and jurisprudence at Heidelberg
University,
'65-69. Dr. Rüdt became acquainted with Lassalle,
and started a paper,
Die Waffe, and in '70 was imprisoned for
participation
in social democratic agitation. From '74 to '86 he
lived in St.
Petersburg as teacher, and has since devoted himself to
Freethought
propaganda. Several of his addresses have been published.
Ruelle (Charles
Claude), French writer, b. Savigny, 1810. Author of
The History of
Christianity, '66, and La Schmita, '69.
Ruge (Arnold),
German reformer, b. Bergen (Isle Rügen), 13
Sept. 1802.
Studied at Halle, Jena, and Heidelberg, and as a member of
the Tugenbund
was imprisoned for six years. After his liberation in
'30 he became
professor at Halle, and with Echtermeyer founded the
Hallische
Jahrbücher, '38, which opposed Church and State. In '48 he
started Die
Reform. Elected to the Frankfort Assembly, he sat on the
Extreme Left.
When compelled to fly he came to England, where he wrote
New Germany in
"Cabinet of Reason" series, and translated Buckle's
History of
Civilisation. He acted as visiting tutor at Brighton,
where he died
30 Dec. 1880.
Ruggieri (Cosmo),
Florentine philosopher and astrologer, patronised
by Catherine de
Medicis. He began to publish Almanachs in 1604, which
he issued
annually. He died at Paris in 1615, declaring himself an
Atheist, and
his corpse was in consequence denied Christian burial.
Rumpf (Johann
Wilhelm), Swiss author of Church, Faith, and Progress,
and The Bible
and Christ, a criticism (Strasburg, 1858). Edited Das
Freire Wort
(Basle, '56).
Russell (John).
See Amberley.
Ryall (Malthus
Questell), was secretary of the Anti-Persecution Union,
1842, and
assisted his friend Mr. Holyoake on The Oracle of Reason
and The
Movement. Died 1846.
Rydberg
(Abraham Viktor), Swedish man of Letters, b. Jönköping, 18
Dec. 1829. He
has written many works of which we mention The Last
Athenian Roman
Days, and The Magic of the Middle Ages, which have
been translated
into English.
Rystwick
(Herman van), early Dutch heretic who denied hell and
taught that the
soul was not immortal, but the elements of all
matter eternal.
He was sent to prison in 1499, and set at liberty
upon abjuring
his opinion, but having published them a second time,
he was arrested
at the Hague, and burnt to death in 1511.
Sabin (Ibn), Al
Mursi, Spanish Arabian philosopher, b. Murcia about
1218 of noble
family. About 1249 he corresponded with Frederick II.,
replying to his
philosophical questions. Committed suicide about 1271.
Sadoc, a
learned Jewish doctor in the third century B.C. He denied
the
resurrection, the existence of angels, and the doctrine
of
predestination, and opposed the idea of future rewards and
punishments.
His followers were named after him, Sadducees.
Saga
(Francesco) de Rovigo, Italian heretic, put to death for
Anti-Trinitarianism
at Venice, 25 Feb. 1566.
Saigey (Emile),
French inspector of telegraph wires. Wrote Modern
Physics, 1867,
and The Sciences in the Eighteenth Century: Physics
of Voltaire,
'74. Died 1875.
Saillard (F.),
French author of The Revolution and the Church (Paris,
'69), and The
Organisation of the Republic, '83.
Sainte Beuve
(Charles Augustin), French critic and man of letters
b. Boulogne, 23
Dec. 1804. Educated in Paris, he studied medicine,
which he
practised several years. A favorable review of V. Hugo's
Odes and
Ballades gained him the intimacy of the Romantic school. As
a critic he made
his mark in '28 with his Historical and Critical
Picture of
French Poetry in the Sixteenth Century. His other principal
works are his
History of Port Royal, '40-62; Literary Portraits,
'32-39; and
Causeries du Lundi, '51-57. In '45 he was elected to the
Academy, and in
'65 was made a senator. As a critic he was penetrative,
comprehensive,
and impartial.
Saint Evremond
(Charles de Marguetel de Saint Denis) seigneur de,
French man of
letters, b. St. Denys-le-Guast (Normandy), 1 April,
1713. He
studied law, but subsequently entered the army and became
major-general.
He was confined in the Bastile for satirising Cardinal
Mazarin. In
England he was well received at the court of Charles
II. He died in
London, 20 Sept. 1703, and was buried in Westminster
Abbey. Asked on
his death-bed if he wished to reconcile himself to God,
he replied, he
desired to reconcile himself to appetite. His works,
consisting of
essays, letters, poems, and dramas, were published in
3 vols. 1705.
Saint-Glain
(Dominique de), French Spinozist, b. Limoges, about
1620. He went
into Holland that he might profess the Protestant
religion more
freely; was captain in the service of the States,
and assisted on
the Rotterdam Gazette. Reading Spinoza, he espoused
his system, and
translated the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus into
French, under
the title of La Clef du Sanctuaire, 1678. This making
much noise, and
being in danger of prosecution, he changed the title to
Ceremonies
Superstitieuses des Juifs, and also to Reflexions Curieuses
d'un Esprit
Desintéressé, 1678.
Saint-Hyacinthe
(Themiseul de Cordonnier de), French writer,
b. Orleans, 24
Sept. 1684. Author of Philosophical Researches,
published at
Rotterdam, 1743. Died near Breda (Holland), 1746. Voltaire
published his
Diner Du Comte de Boulainvilliers under the name of
St. Hyacinthe.
Saint John
(Henry). See Bolingbroke, Lord.
Saint Lambert
(Charles, or rather Jean François de), French writer,
b. Nancy, 16
Dec. 1717. After being educated among the Jesuits he
entered the
army, and was admired for his wit and gallantry. He became
a devoted
adherent of Voltaire and an admirer of Madame du Chatelet. He
wrote some
articles in the Encyclopédie, and many fugitive pieces and
poems in the
literary journals. His poem, the Seasons, 1769 procured
him admission
to the Academy. He published essays on Helvetius and
Bolingbroke,
and Le Catéchisme Universel. His Philosophical Works
were published
in 1801. Died Paris, 9 Feb. 1803.
Sale (George),
English Oriental scholar, b. Kent, 1680, educated
at Canterbury.
He was one of a society which undertook to publish a
Universal
History, and was also one of the compilers of the General
Dictionary. His
most important work was a translation of the Koran,
with a
preliminary discourse and explanatory notes, 1734. He was one
of the founders
of the Society for the Encouragement of Learning. Died
14 Nov. 1736.
Salieres (A.),
contributor to l'Athée, 1870. Has written a work on
Patriotism,
1881.
Sallet
(Friedrich von), German pantheist poet of French descent,
b. Neisse
(Silesia), 20 April, 1812. An officer in the army, he was
imprisoned for
writing a satire on the life of a trooper. In '34 he
attended
Hegel's lectures at Berlin, and in '38 quitted the army. He
wrote a curious
long poem entitled the Layman's Gospel, in which he
takes New
Testament texts and expounds them pantheistically--the God
who is made
flesh is replaced by the man who becomes God. Died Reichau
(Silesia), 21
Feb. 1843.
Salmeron y
Alonso (Nicolas), Spanish statesman, b. Alhama lo Seco,
1838. Studied
law, and became a Democratic journalist; a deputy to the
Cortes in 1871,
and became President thereof during the Republic of
'73. He wrote a
prologue to the work of Giner on Philosophy and Arts,
'78, and his
own works were issued in 1881.
Salt (Henry
Stephens), English writer, b. India, 20 Sept. 1851;
educated at
Eton, where he became assistant master. A contributor
to Progress, he
has written Literary Sketches, '88. A monograph on
Shelley, and a
Life of James Thomson, "B.V.", 1889.
Saltus (Edgar
Evertson), American author, b. New York 8 June
1858. Studied
at Concord, Paris, Heidelberg and Munich. In '84 he
published a
sketch of Balzac. Next year appeared The Philosophy of
Disenchantment,
appreciative and well written views of Schopenhauer
and Hartmann.
This was followed by The Anatomy of Negation, a sketchy
account of some
atheists and sceptics from Kapila to Leconte de Lisle,
'86. Has also
written several novels, and Eden, an episode, '89. His
brother Francis
is the author of Honey and Gall, a book of poems
(Philadelphia,
'73.)
Salverte (Anne
Joseph Eusèbe Baconniere de), French philosopher,
b. Paris, 18
July, 1771. He studied among the Oratorians. Wrote Epistle
to a Reasonable
Woman, an Essay on What should be Believed, 1793,
contributed to
Maréchal's Dictionnaire des Athées, published an eloge
on Diderot,
1801, and many brochures, among others a tragedy on the
Death of Jesus
Christ. Elected deputy in '28, he was one of the warm
partisans of
liberty, and in '30, demanded that Catholicism should not
be recognised
as the state religion. He is chiefly remembered by his
work on The
Occult Sciences, '29, which was translated into English,
'46. To the
French edition of '56 Littré wrote a Preface. He died 27
Oct. 1839. On
his death bed he refused religious offices.
Sand (George),
the pen name of Amandine Lucile Aurore Dupin, afterwards
baroness
Dudnevant, French novelist, b. Paris, 1 July, 1804, and
brought up by
her grandmother at the Château de Nohant. Reading
Rousseau and
the philosophers divorced her from Catholicism. She
remained a
Humanitarian. Married Sept. 1822, Baron Dudnevant, an
elderly man who
both neglected and ill-treated her, and from whom
after some
years she was glad to separate at the sacrifice of her
whole fortune.
Her novels are too many to enumerate. The Revolution of
'48 drew her
into politics, and she started a journal and translated
Mazzini's
Republic and Royalty in Italy, Died at her Chateau of Nohant,
8 June, 1876.
Her name was long obnoxious in England, where she was
thought of as
an assailant of marriage and religion, but a better
appreciation of
her work and genius is making way.
Sarcey
(Franscique), French critic, b. Dourdan, 8 Oct. 1828, editor
of Le XIXe.
Siècle, has written plays, novels, and many anti-clerical
articles.
"Sarrasi,"
pseudonym of A. de C....; French Orientalist b. Department
of Tarn, 1837,
author of L'Orient Devoilé, '80, in which he shows
the mythical
elements in Christianity.
Saull (William
Devonshire), English geologist, b. 1783. He established
a free
geological museum, contributed to the erection of the John
Street
Institute, and was principally instrumental in opening the
old Hall of
Science, City Road. He wrote on the connection between
astronomy,
geology, etc. He died 26 April, 1855, and is buried in
Kensal Green,
near his friends, Allen Davenport and Henry Hetherington.
Saunderson
(Nicholas), English mathematician b. Thurleston (Yorkshire),
2 Jan. 1682. He
lost both his eyes and his sight by small pox when
but a year old,
yet he became conversant with Euclid, Archimedes,
and Diophantus,
when read to him in Greek. He lectured at Cambridge
University,
explaining Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, and
even his works on light and color. It was said,
"They have
turned out Whiston for believing in but one God, and put
in Saunderson,
who believes in no God at all." Saunderson said that
to believe in
God he must first touch him. Died 19 April, 1739.
Sauvestre
(Charles), French journalist, b. Mans. 1818, one of
the editors of
L'Opinion Nationale. Has written on The Clergy and
Education
('61), Monita Secreta Societatis Jesu; Secret Instructions
of the Jesuits
('65), On the Knees of the Church ('68), Religious
Congregations
Unveiled ('70), and other anti-clerical works. He died
at Paris in
1883.
Saville (Sir George),
Marquis of Halifax, English statesman,
b. Yorkshire,
1630. He became President of the Council in the reign
of James II.,
but was dismissed for opposing the repeal of the Test
Acts. He wrote
several pieces and memoirs. Burnet gives a curious
account of his
opinions, which he probably tones down.
Sawtelle (C.
M.), American author of Reflections on the Science of
Ignorance, or
the art of teaching others what you don't know yourself,
Salem, Oregon,
1868.
Sbarbaro
(Pietro), Italian publicist and reformer, b. Savona, 1838;
studied
jurisprudence. He published a work on The Philosophy of
Research, '66.
In '70 he dedicated to Mauro Macchi a book on The Task
of the
Nineteenth Century, and presided at a congress of Freethinkers
held at Loreto.
Has written popular works on the Conditions of Human
Progress, the
Ideal of Democracy, and an essay entitled From Socino
to Mazzini,
'86.
Schade (Georg),
German Deist, b. Apenrade, 1712. He believed in the
immortality of
brutes. In 1770 he was imprisoned for his opinions
on the Isle of
Christiansoe. He settled at Kiel, Holstein, in 1775,
where he died
in 1795.
Scherer
(Edmond), French critic and publicist, b. Paris 8 April,
1815. Of
Protestant family, he became professor of exegesis at Geneva,
but his views
becoming too free, he resigned his chair and went to
Strasburg,
where he became chief of the School of Liberal Protestants,
and in the
Revue de Théologie et de Philosophie Chrétienne, '50-60,
put forward
views which drew down a tempest from the orthodox. He also
wrote in the
Bibliotheque Universelle and Revue des Deux-Mondes. Some
of his articles
have been collected as Mélanges de Critique Religieuse,
'60; and
Mélanges d'Histoire Religieuse, '64. He was elected deputy in
'71, and sat
with the Republicans of the Left. Died 1889.
Scherr
(Johannes), German author, b. Hohenrechberg, 3
Oct. 1817.
Educated at Zürich and Tübingen, he wrote in '43 with his
brother Thomas
a Popular History of Religious and Philosophical Ideas,
and in '57 a
History of Religion, in three parts. In '60 he became
Professor of
History and Literature at Zürich, and has written many
able literary
studies, including histories of German and English
literature.
Died at Zürich, 21 Nov. 1887.
Schiff (Johan
Moriz), German physiologist, b. Frankfort, 1823. Educated
at Berlin and
Gottingen, he became Professor of Comparative Anatomy at
Berne, '54-63;
of Physiology at Florence, '63-76, and at Genoa. Has
written many
physiological treatises, which have been attacked as
materialistic.
Schiller
(Johann Christoph Friedrich von), eminent German poet and
historian, b.
Marbech, 10 Nov. 1759. His mother wished him to become a
minister, but
his tastes led him in a different direction. A friend of
Goethe, he
enriched German literature with numerous plays and poems,
a History of
the Netherlands Revolt, and of the Thirty Years' War. He
died in the
prime of mental life at Weimar, 9 May, 1805.
Schmidt (Eduard
Oskar), German zoologist, b. Torgau, 21 Feb. 1823. He
travelled
widely, and became professor of natural history at
Jena. Among the
first of Germans to accept Darwinism, he has
illustrated its
application in many directions, and published an able
work on The
Doctrine of Descent and Darwinism in the "International
Scientific
Series." Died at Strasburg, 17 Jan. 1886.
Schmidt
(Kaspar), German philosopher, b. Bayreuth,
25 Oct. 1806.
Studied at Berlin, Erlangen, and Königsberg, first
theology, then
philosophy. Under the pseudonym of "Max Stirner"
he wrote a
system of individualism The Only One, and His Possession
(Der Einzige und
sein Eigenthum), '45. He also wrote a History of
Reaction in two
parts (Berlin, '52), and translated Smith's Wealth
of Nations and
Say's Text-book of Political Economy. Died at Berlin,
25 June, 1856.
Schneeberger
(F. J.), Austrian writer, b. Vienna, 7 Sept, 1827. Has
written some
popular novels under the name of "Arthur Storch," and
was one of the
founders of the German Freethinkers' Union.
Schoelcher (
Victor), French philosophist, b. Paris, 21 July
1804. While
still young he joined the secret society Aide-toi, le ciel
t'aidera, and
studied social questions. He devoted himself from about
'26 to
advocating the abolition of slavery, and wrote many works
on the subject.
On 3 March, '48, he was made Under Secretary of the
Navy, and
caused a decree to be issued by the Provisional Government
enfranchising
all slaves on French territory. He was elected Deputy for
Martinique '48
and '49. After 2 Dec. '51, he came to London, where he
wrote
occasionally in the Reasoner and National Reformer. He returned
to France
during the war, and took part in the defence of Paris. In
'71 he was
again returned for Martinique, and in '75 he was elected
a life senator.
Scholl
(Aurélien), French journalist, b. Bordeaux, 14 July, 1833. He
began life as a
writer on the Corsaire, founded Satan, Le Nain Jaune,
etc., and
writes on l'Evénement. Has written several novels, and le
Procès de Jésus
Christ, '77.
Scholl (Karl),
German writer and preacher to the Free religious bodies
of Mannheim and
Heidelberg, b. Karlsruhe, 17 Aug. 1820. He became
a minister '44,
but was suspended for his free opinions in '45. His
first important
work was on the Messiah Legend of the East (Hamburg,
'52), and in
'61 he published a volume on Free Speech, a collection
of extracts
from French, English, and American Freethinkers. In '70
he started a
monthly journal of the Religion of Humanity, Es Werde
Licht! which
continued for many years. Has published many discourses,
and written
Truth from Ruins, '73, and on Judaism and the Religion
of Humanity,
'79.
Schopenhauer
(Arthur), German pessimist philosopher, b. Danzig,
22 Feb. 1788.
The son of a wealthy and well-educated merchant and a
vivacious lady,
he was educated in French and English, and studied
at Göttingen
science, history, and the religions and philosophies of
the East. After
two visits to Italy, and an unsuccessful attempt to
obtain pupils
at Berlin, he took up his abode at Frankfort. In 1815
he wrote his
chief work, The World as Will and Idea, translated into
English in '83.
His philosophy is expressed in the title, will is
the one
reality, all else appearance. He also wrote The Two Ground
Problems of
Ethics, '61, On the Freedom of Will, and a collection
of essays
entitled Parega and Paralipomena ('51). Died at Frankfort,
21 Sept. 1860.
Schopenhauer was a pronounced Atheist, and an enemy of
every form of
superstition. He said that religions are like glow-worms;
they require
darkness to shine in.
Schroeter
(Eduard), German American writer, b. Hannover, 4 June,
1810, studied
theology at Jena; entered the Free-religious communion
in '45. In '50,
he went to America, living since '53 in Sauk City,
and frequently
lecturing there. In '81, he attended the International
Conference of
Freethinkers at Brussels. He was a constant contributor
to the
Freidenker, of Milwaukee, until his death 2 April, 1888.
Schroot (A.),
German author of Visions and Ideas (Berlin, 1865),
Natural Law and
Human Will; Creation and Man, and Science and Life
(Hamburg,
1873).
Schuenemann
Pott (Friedrich), German American, b. Hamburg, 3 April,
1826. He joined
the "Freie Gemeinde," and was expelled from Prussia
in '48. After
the Revolution he returned to Berlin and took part
in democratic
agitation, for which he was tried for high treason,
but acquitted.
In '54 he removed to America, where he made lecturing
tours over the
States settling at San Francisco.
Schultze (Karl
August Julius Fritz), German writer, b. Celle, 7 May,
1846, studied
at Jena, Göttingen and Münich, has written an able study
on Fetishism,
Leipzig '71, a pamphlet on Religion in German Schools,
'72, a History
of the Philosophy of the Renaissance, '74, and Kant
and Darwin,
'75. In '76, he was appointed Professor of Philosophy in
Jena, since
which he has written The Elements of Materialism, '80,
Philosophy of
the Natural Sciences, 2 vols. '81-82, and Elements of
Spiritualism,
1883.
Schumann
(Robert Alexander), German musical composer, b. Nekau, 8
July, 1810. He
studied law at Leipsic, but forsook it for music. He
started a
musical journal '34, which he edited for some years. His
lyrical
compositions are unsurpassed, and he also composed a "profane"
oratorio,
Paradise and the Peri ('40). His character and opinions
are illustrated
by his Letters. Died 29 July, 1856.
Schweichel
(Georg Julius Robert), German writer, b. Königsberg, 12
July, 1821. He
studied jurisprudence, but took to literature. Taking
part in the
events of '48, after the reaction he went to
Switzerland.
Has written several novels dealing with Swiss life,
also a Life of
Auerbach. He wrote the preface to Dulk's Irrgang des
Leben's Jesu,
1884.
Schweitzer
(Jean Baptista von), German Socialist poet, b. Frankfort,
12 July, 1833.
He studied law in Berlin and Heidelberg; became after
Lassalle's
death president of the German Workmen's Union, and was
sent to
Parliament in '67. He wrote the Zeitgeist and Christianity,
'62, The
Darwinians, '75, and several other works. Died 28 July, 1875.
Scot
(Reginald), English rationalist, author of The Discoverie of
Witchcraft,
1584, the first English work to question the existence of
witches. It was
burnt by order of King James I, and was republished
in 1886. Scot
died in 1599.
Scott (Thomas),
English scholar, b. 28 April 1808. In early life he
travelled
widely, lived with Indians and had been page to Chas. X,
of France.
Having investigated Christianity, he in later life devoted
himself to
Freethought propaganda by sending scholarly pamphlets among
the clergy and
cultured classes. From '62-77, he issued from Mount
Pleasant,
Ramsgate, over a hundred different pamphlets by Bp. Hinds,
F. W. Newman,
Kalisch, Lestrange, Willis, Strange, etc., most of which
were given
away. He issued a challenge to the Christian Evidence
Society, and
wrote with Sir G. W. Cox, The English Life of Jesus
'71. Altogether
his publications extend to twenty volumes. Little
known outside
his own circle, Thomas Scott did a work which should
secure him
lasting honor. Died at Norwood, 30 Dec. 1878.
Seaver (Horace
Holley), American journalist, b. Boston, 25
Aug. 1810. In
'37 he became a compositor on the Boston Investigator,
and during
Kneeland's imprisonment took the editorship, which
he continued
for upwards of fifty years during which he battled
strenuously for
Freethought in America. His articles were always
very plain and
to the point. A selection of them has been published
with the title
Occasional Thoughts (Boston, '88). With Mr. Mendum, he
helped the
erection of the Paine Memorial Hall, and won the esteem of
all
Freethinkers in America. Died, 21 Aug. 1889. His funeral oration
was delivered
by Colonel Ingersoll.
Sebille
(Adolphe), French writer, who, under the pseudonym
of "Dr.
Fabricus," published God, Man, and his latter end, a
medico-psychological
study, 1868, and Letters from a Materialist to
Mgr. Dupanloup,
1868-9.
Sechenov or
Setchenoff (Ivan), Russian philosopher, who, in 1863,
published
Psychological Studies, explaining the mind by physiology. The
work made a
great impression in Russia, and has been translated into
French by
Victor Derély, and published in '84 with an introduction
by M. G.
Wyrouboff.
Secondat
(Charles de). See Montesquieu.
Seeley (John
Robert), English historian and man of letters, b. London,
1834, educated
at City of London School and Cambridge, where he
graduated in
'57. In '63, he was appointed Professor of Latin in
London
University. In '66, appeared his Ecce Homo, a survey of the
Life and Work
of Jesus Christ, published anonymously, and which Lord
Shaftesbury
denounced in unmeasured terms as vomitted from the pit of
hell. In '69,
he became professor of modern history at Cambridge, and
has since written
some important historical works as well as Natural
Religion ('82).
Prof. Seeley is president of the Ethical Society.
Segond (Louis
August), French physician and Positivist, author of
a plan of a
positivist school to regenerate medicine, 1849, and of
several medical
works.
Seidel
(Martin), Silesian Deist, of Olhau, lived at the end of the
sixteenth
century. He held that Jesus was not the predicted Messiah,
and endeavored
to propagate his opinion among the Polish Socinians. He
wrote three
Letters on the Messiah, The Foundations of the Christian
Religion, in
which he considered the quotation from the Old Testament
in the new, and
pointed out the errors of the latter.
Sellon
(Edward), English archæologist, author of The Monolithic
Temples of
India; Annotations on the Sacred Writings of the Hindus,
1865, and other
scarce works, privately printed.
Semerie
(Eugène), French Positivist, b. Aix, 6 Jan. 1832. Becoming
physician at
Charenton, he studied mental maladies, and in '67
published a
work on Intellectual Symptoms of Madness, in which
he maintained
that the disordered mind went back from Positivism
to metaphysics,
theology, and then to fetishism. This work was
denounced by
the Bishop of Orleans. Dr. Semerie wrote A Simple Reply
to M.
Dupanloup, '68. During the sieges of Paris he acted as surgeon
and director of
the ambulance. A friend of Pierre Lafitte, he edited
the Politique
Positive, and wrote Positivists and Catholics, '73,
and The Law of
the Three States, '75. Died at Grasse, May, 1884.
Semler (Johann Salomo),
German critic, b. Saalfeld, 18 Dec. 1725. He
was professor
of theology at Halle and founder of historical Biblical
criticism
there. He translated Simon's Critical History of the New
Testament, and
by asserting the right of free discussion drew down
the wrath of
the orthodox. Died at Halle, 4 March, 1791.
Serafini (Maria
Alimonda), Italian authoress of a Catechism for
Female
Freethinkers (Geneva, 1869), and a work on Marriage and Divorce
(Salerno, '73).
Serveto y Reves
(Miguel), better known as Michael Servetus, Spanish
martyr, b.
Villanova (Aragon), 1509. Intended for the Church, he
left it for
law, which he studied at Toulouse. He afterward studied
medicine at
Paris, and corresponded with Calvin on the subject
of the Trinity,
against which he wrote De Trinitatis Erroribus
and
Christianismi Restitutio, which excited the hatred of both
Catholics and
Protestants. To Calvin Servetus sent a copy of his
last work.
Calvin, through one Trie, denounced him to the Catholic
authorities at
Lyons. He was imprisoned, but escaped, and to get to
Naples passed
through Geneva, where he was seized at the instance of
Calvin, tried
for blasphemy and heresy, and burnt alive at a slow fire,
26 Oct. 1553.
Seume (Johann
Gottfried), German poet, b. near Weissenfels, 29
Jan. 1763. He
was sent to Leipsic, and intended for a theologian,
but the dogmas
disgusted him, and he left for Paris. He lived an
adventurous
life, travelled extensively, and wrote Promenade to
Syracuse, 1802,
and other works. Died at Teplitz, 13 June, 1810.
Sextus
Empiricus, Greek sceptical philosopher and physician, who
probably lived
early in the third century of the Christian era. He
left two works,
one a summary of the doctrines of the sceptics in
three books;
the other an attack on all positive philosophy.
Shadwell
(Thomas), English dramatist, b. Straton Hall, Norfolk,
1640. Although
damned by Dryden in his Mac Flecknoe, Shadwell's plays
are not without
merit, and illustrate the days of Charles II. Died
6 Dec. 1692.
Shaftesbury
(Anthony Ashley Cooper), third Earl, b. London, 26
Feb. 1671.
Educated by Locke, in 1693 he was elected M.P. for Poole,
and proposed
granting counsel to prisoners in case of treason. His
health
suffering, he resigned and went to Holland, where he made the
acquaintance of
Bayle. The excitement induced by the French Prophets
occasioned his
Letters upon Enthusiasm, 1708. This was followed,
by his
Moralists and Sensus Communis. In 1711 he removed to Naples,
where he died 4
Feb. 1713. His collected works were published under
the title of
Characteristics, 1732. They went through several editions,
and did much to
raise the character of English Deism.
Shakespeare
(William). The greatest of all dramatists,
b.
Stratford-on-Avon, 23 April, 1564. The materials for writing his
life are slender.
He married in his 19th year, went to London, where he
became an actor
and produced his marvellous plays, the eternal honor
of English
literature. Shakespeare gained wealth and reputation and
retired to his
native town, where he died April 23, 1616. His dramas
warrant the
inference that he was a Freethinker. Prof. J. R. Green
says,
"Often as his questionings turned to the riddle of life
and death, and
leaves it a riddle to the last without heeding the
common
theological solutions around him." His comprehensive mind
disdained
endorsement of religious dogmas and his wit delighted in
what the
Puritans call profanity. Mr. Birch in his Inquiry into the
Philosophy and
Religion of Shakespeare, sustains the position that
he was an
Atheist.
Shaw (James
Dickson), American writer, b. Texas, 27 Dec. 1841. Brought
up on a cattle
farm, at the Civil War he joined the Southern Army,
took part in
some battles, and was wounded. He afterwards entered the
Methodist
Episcopal ministry, '70; studied biblical criticism to answer
sceptics, and
his own faith gave way. He left the Church in March,
'83, and
started the Independent Pulpit at Waco, Texas, in which he
publishes bold
Freethought articles. He rejects all supernaturalism,
and has written
The Bible, What Is It?, Studies in Theology, The
Bible Against
Itself, etc.
Shelley (Percy
Bysshe), English poet, b. Field Place (Sussex), 4
Aug. 1792. From
Eton, where he refused to fag, he went to Oxford. Here
he published a
pamphlet on the necessity of Atheism, for which he
was expelled
from the University. His father, Sir Timothy Shelley,
also forbade
him his house. He went to London, wrote Queen Mab, and
met Miss
Westbrook, whom, in 1811, he married. After two children
had been born,
they separated. In '16 Shelley learned that his wife
had drowned
herself. He now claimed the custody of his children,
but, in March,
'17, Lord Eldon decided against him, largely on
account of his
opinions. Shelley had previously written A Letter
to Lord
Ellenborough, indignantly attacking the sentence the judge
passed on D. I.
Eaton for publishing Paine's Age of Reason. On 30
Dec. '16,
Shelley married Mary, daughter of William Godwin and Mary
Wollstonecraft.
In '18, fearing their son might also be taken from him,
he left England
never to return. He went to Italy, where he met Byron,
composed The
Cenci, the Witch of Atlas, Prometheus Unbound, Adonais,
Epipsychidion,
Hellas, and many minor poems of exquisite beauty,
the glory of
our literature. He was drowned in the Bay of Spezzia,
8 July, 1822.
Shelley never wavered in his Freethought. Trelawny,
who knew him
well, says he was an Atheist to the last.
Siciliani
(Pietro), Professor in the University of Bologna b. Galatina,
19 Sep. 1835,
author of works on Positive Philosophy, Socialism,
Darwinism, and
Modern Sociology, '79; and Modern Psychogeny, with a
preface by J.
Soury, '82. Died 28 Dec. '85.
Sidney
(Algernon), English Republican, and second son of Robert, Earl
of Leicester,
b. 1617. He became a colonel in the Army of Parliament,
and a member of
the House of Commons. On the Restoration he remained
abroad till
1677, but being implicated in the Rye House Plot, was
condemned by
Judge Jeffreys to be executed on Tower Hill, 7 Dec. 1678.
Sierebois (P.).
See Boissière.
Siffle
(Alexander François), Dutch writer, b. Middleburg, 11 May,
1801. Studied
law at Leyden, and became notary at Middleburg. He
wrote several
poems and works of literary value, and contributed
to de Dageraad.
He was a man of wide reading. Died at Middleburg,
7 Oct. 1872.
Sigward (M.),
b. St. Leger-sur-Dhume, France, 15 April, 1817. An
active French
democrat and Freethinker, and compiler of a Republican
calendar. He
took part in the International Congress at Paris '89,
and is one of
the editors of Le Danton.
Simcox (Edith),
author of Natural Law in the English and Foreign
Philosophical
Library; also wrote on the Design Argument in the
Fortnightly
Review, 1872, under the signature "H. Lawrenny."
Simon de
Tournai, a Professor at Paris University early in the XIIIth
century. He
said that "Three seducers," Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad,
"have
mystified mankind with their doctrines." He was said to have
been punished
by God for his impiety.
Simon
(Richard), learned French theological critic, b. Dieppe, 15 May,
1638. Brought
up by the Congregation of the Oratory, he distinguished
himself by bold
erudition. His Critical History of the Old Testament,
1678, was
suppressed by Parliament. He followed it with a Critical
History of the
New Testament, which was also condemned. Died at Dieppe,
11 April, 1712.
Simonis.--A
physician, b. at Lucques and persecuted in Poland for
his opinions
given in an Atheistic work, entitled Simonis Religio,
published at
Cracow, 1588.
Simpson
(George), of the Glasgow Zetetic Society, who in 1838 put
forward a
Refutation of the Argument a priori for the being and
attributes of
God, in reply to Clarke and Gillespie. He used the
signature
"Antitheos." Died about 1844.
Sjoberg
(Walter), b. 24 May, 1865, at Borgo (Finland), lives near
Helsingfors,
and took part in founding the Utilistiska Samfundet
there. During
the imprisonment of Mr. Lennstrand he gave bold lectures
at Stockholm.
Skinner
(William), of Kirkcaldy, Deist, author of Thoughts on
Superstition or
an attempt to Discover Truth (Cupar, 1822), was
credited also
with Jehovah Unveiled or the God of the Jews, published
by Carlile in
1819.
Slater
(Thomas), English lecturer, b. 15 Sept. 1820. Has for many
years been an
advocate of Secularism and Co-operation. He was on the
Town Council of
Bury, and now resides at Leicester.
Slenker (Elmina),
née Drake, American reformer, b. of Quaker parents,
23 Dec. 1827.
At fourteen, she began notes for her work, Studying
the Bible,
afterwards published at Boston, '70; she conducts the
Children's
Corner in the Boston Investigator, and has contributed
to most of the
American Freethought papers. Has written John's Way
('78), Mary
Jones, The Infidel Teacher ('85), The Darwins ('79),
Freethought
stories. Resides at Snowville, Virginia.
Smith (Geritt),
American reformer, b. Utica (N.Y.), 6 March, 1799,
graduated at
Hamilton's College. He was elected to Congress in 1850,
but only served
one Session. Though of a wealthy slaveholding family,
he largely
devoted his fortune to the Anti-Slavery cause. In religion,
originally a
Presbyterian, he came to give up all dogmas, and wrote
The Religion of
Reason, '64, and Nature the base of a Free Theology,
'67. Died, New
York, 28 Dec. 1874.
Snoilsky (Karl
Johan Gustav), Count, Swedish poet, b. Stockholm,
8 Sept. 1841.
Studied at Upsala, '60. Displays his Freethought in
his poems
published under the name of "Sventröst."
Socinus [Ital.
Sozzini] (Fausto), anti-trinitarian, b. Siena, 5
Dec. 1539. He
adopted the views of his uncle, Laelio, (1525-1562),
and taught them
with more boldness. In 1574 he went to Switzerland,
and afterwards
to Poland, where he made many converts, and died 3
March, 1604.
Sohlman (Per
August Ferdinand), Swedish publicist, b. Nerika, 1824. He
edited the
Aftonbladet, of Stockholm, from '57, and was a distinguished
Liberal
politician. Died at Stockholm, 1874.
Somerby
(Charles Pomeroy), American publisher, b. 1843. Has issued
many important
Freethought works, and is business manager of the
Truthseeker.
Somerset
(Edward Adolphus Saint Maur), 12th Duke of, b. 20
Dec. 1804.
Educated at Eton and Oxford. He married a daughter of
Thomas
Sheridan. Sat as M.P. for Totnes, '34-35, and was Lord of the
Treasury,
'35-39, and First Lord of the Admiralty, '59-66. In '72 he
startled the
aristocratic world by a trenchant attack on orthodoxy
entitled
Christian Theology and Modern Scepticism. He also wrote on
mathematics and
on Monarchy and Democracy. Died 28 Nov. 1885.
Soury (Auguste
Jules), French philosopher, b. Paris, 1842. In '65 he
became
librarian at the Bibliothèque Nationale. He has contributed
to the Revue
des Deux Mondes, Revue Nouvelle, and other journals,
and has
published important works on The Bible and Archæology, '72;
Historical
Studies on Religions, '77; Essays of Religious Criticism,
'78; Jesus and
the Gospels, '78, a work in which he maintains that
Jesus suffered
from cerebral affection, and which has been translated
into English,
together with an essay on The Religion of Israel from
his Historical
Studies. Studies of Psychology, '79, indicated a new
direction in M.
Soury's Freethought. He has since written A Breviary
of the History
of Materialism, '80; Naturalist Theories of the World
and of Life in
Antiquity, '81; Natural Philosophy, '82; Contemporary
Psychological
Doctrines, '83. He has translated Noeldeke's Literary
History of the
Old Testament, 73; Haeckel's Proofs of Evolution,
'79; and
Preyer's Elements of General Physiology, '84.
Southwell
(Charles), English orator, b. London, 1814. He served
with the
British Legion in Spain, and became an actor and social
missionary. In
Nov. '41 he started The Oracle of Reason at Bristol,
for an article
in which on "The Jew Book" he was tried for blasphemy
14 Jan. '42,
and after an able defence sentenced to twelve months'
imprisonment,
and a fine of one hundred pounds. After coming out he
edited the
Lancashire Beacon. He also lectured and debated both in
England and
Scotland; wrote Christianity Proved Idolatry, '44; Apology
for Atheism,
'46; Difficulties of Christianity, '48; Superstition
Unveiled; The
Impossibility of Atheism which he held on the ground
that Theism was
unproved, and Another Fourpenny Wilderness, in answer
to G. J.
Holyoake's criticism of the same. He also wrote about '45,
Confessions of
a Freethinker, an account of his own life. In '56 he
went to New
Zealand, and died at Auckland 7 Aug. 1860.
Souverain (N.),
French author of Platonism Unveiled 1700, a posthumous
work. He had
been a minister in Poitou and was deposed on account of
his opinions.
Sozzini. See
Socinus.
Spaink (Pierre
François), Dutch physician, b. Amsterdam, 13 Dec. 1862,
and studied at
the city, wrote for a time on De Dageraad, with the pen
names "A.
Th. Eist." and "F.R.S." Has translated Romanes' Scientific
Evidences of
Organic Evolution.
Spaventa
(Bertrando), Italian philosopher, b. 1817. Since '61 he
has been
professor of philosophy at Naples. Has written upon the
Philosophy of
Kant, Gioberti, Spinoza, Hegel, etc. Died 1888.
Specht (Karl
August), Dr. German writer, b. Lhweina, 2 July,
1845. Has been
for many years editor of Menschenthum at Gotha, and
has written on
Brain and Soul, Theology and Science and a Popular
History of the
World's Development, which has gone through several
editions. Dr.
Specht is a leading member of the German Freethinkers'
Union.
Spencer
(Herbert), English philosopher, b. Derby, 1820. He was
articled to a
civil engineer, but drifted into literature. He
wrote in the
Westminster Review, and at the house of Dr. Chapman
met Mill, Lewes
and "George Eliot." His first important work was
Social
Statistics, '51. Four years later appeared his Principles of
Psychology,
which with First Principles, '62; Principles of Biology,
'64; Principles
of Sociology, '76-85, and Data of Ethics, '79, form
part of his
"Synthetic Philosophy" in which he applies the doctrines
of evolution to
the phenomena of mind and society no less than to
animal life. He
has also published Essays, 3 vols, '58-74; a work on
Education '61;
Recent Discussions on Science, Philosophy and Morals,
'71; The Study
of Sociology, '72; Descriptive Sociology, '72-86,
an immense work
compiled under his direction. Also papers directed
against
Socialism; The Coming Slavery, '84; and Man and the State,
'85, and has
contributed many articles to the best reviews.
Spinoza
(Baruch), Pantheistic philosopher, b. of Jewish parents,
Amsterdam, 24
Nov. 1632. He early engaged in the study of theology and
philosophy,
and, making no secret of his doubts, was excommunicated
by the
Synagogue, 27 July, 1656. About the same time he narrowly
escaped death
by a fanatic's dagger. To avoid persecution, he retired
to Rhinsburg,
and devoted himself to philosophy, earning his living by
polishing
lenses. About 1670 he settled at the Hague, where he remained
until his
death. In 1670 he issued his Tractatus Theologico-politicus,
which made a
great outcry; and for more than a century this great
thinker, whose
life was gentle and self-denying, was stigmatized as
an atheist, a
monster, and a blasphemer. A re-action followed, with
Lessing and
Goethe, upon whom he had great influence. Though formerly
stigmatized as
an atheist, Spinoza is now generally recognised as
among the
greatest philosophers. He died in poverty at the Hague,
21 Feb. 1677.
His Ethics was published with his Opera Posthuma. The
bi-centenary of
his death was celebrated there by an eloquent address
from M. Rénan.
Spooner
(Lysander), American writer, b. Athol (Mass.), 19
Jan. 1808. His
first pamphlet was A Deist's Reply to the alleged
Supernatural
Evidences of Christianity. He started letter-carrying from
Boston to New
York, but was overwhelmed with prosecutions. He published
many works
against slavery, and in favor of Individualism. Died at
Boston, 14 May,
1887.
Stabili
(Francesco), see Cecco' d'Ascoli.
Stamm (August
Theodor), German Humanist, wrote The Religion of Action,
translated into
English, 1860. After the events of '48, he came to
England, went
to America, Aug. '54.
Standring
(George), English lecturer and writer, b. 18 Oct. 1855,
was for some
years chorister at a Ritualistic Church, but discarded
theology after
independent inquiry in '73. He became hon. sec. of the
National Secular
Society about '75, resigning on appointment of paid
sec., was
auditor and subsequently vice-president. Started Republican
Chronicle,
April, 1875, this was afterwards called The Republican, and
in Sept. '88
The Radical. He is sec. of the London Secular Federation,
and has
contributed to the National Reformer, Freethinker, Progress,
Our Corner,
Reynolds's and Pall Mall Gazette. His brother, Sam.,
b. 27 July,
1853, is also an active Freethinker.
Stanley (F.
Lloyd), American author of An Outline of the Future
Religion of the
World (New York and London, 1884), a Deistic work in
which he
criticises preceding religions.
Stanton
(Elizabeth, née Cady), American reformer, b. Johnstone, New
York, 12 Nov.
1815. A friend of Ernestine Rose and Lucretia Mott, she
was associated
with them in the Anti-Slavery and the Woman's Rights
crusades, of
which last the first convention was held at her home in
Seneca Falls,
July '48. She edited with her friends, Susan Anthony
and Parker
Pilsbury, The Revolution, and is joint author of History
of Woman's
Suffrage ('80-86). She has written in the North American
Review notably
on "Has Christianity Benefited Woman," May, 1885.
Stap (A.),
author of Historic Studies on the origins of
Christianity.
Bruxelles, 1864, and The Immaculate Conception, 1869.
Starcke (Carl
Nicolay), Dr. and teacher of philosophy in the
University of
Copenhagen, b. 29 March, 1858. A decided disciple
of Feuerbach on
whom he published a dissertation in '83. This able
Monograph on
the whole doctrine of the German philosopher was in '85,
published in a
German edition. Prof. Starcke has since published in
the
"International Scientific Series," a work on The Primitive Family,
in which he
critically surveys the views of Lubbock, Maine, McLennan,
etc. He is now
engaged on a work on Ethics based on the doctrines of
Ludwig
Feuerbach.
Stecchetti
(Lorenzo). See Guerrini (O.)
Stefanoni
(Luigi). Italian writer and publicist, b. Milan, 1842. In
'59, his first
Romance, The Spanish in Italy was suppressed by
the Austrians.
He joined Garibaldi's volunteers and contributed
to Unita
Italiana. In '66, he founded at Milan the Society of
Freethinkers
and the organ Il Libero Pensiero, in which he wrote A
critical
History of Superstition, afterwards published separately
2 vols. '69. He
also compiled a Philosophical Dictionary, '73-75;
and wrote
several romances as L'Inferno, The Red and Black of Rome,
etc. He
translated Büchner's Force and Matter, Morin's Jesus réduit,
La Mettrie's
Man-machine, Letourneau's Physiology of the Passions,
and Feuerbach's
Essence of Religion.
Steinbart
(Gotthelf, Samuel), German rationalist, b. Züllichau, 21
Sept. 1738.
Brought up in a pietist school, he became a Freethinker
through reading
Voltaire. In '74, he became Prof. of Philosophy
at
Frankfurt-on-the-Oder, and wrote a System of Pure Philosophy,
'78. Died, 3
Feb. 1809.
Steinthal
(Hajjim), German philologist, b. Gröbzig, 16 May, 1823,
has written
many works on language and mythology.
Steller
(Johann), Advocate at Leipsic, published an heretical work,
Pilatus
liberatoris Jesu subsidio defensus, Dresden, 1674.
"Stendhal
(M. de)," Pseud, see Beyle (M. H.)
Stephen (Sir
James FitzJames), English judge and writer, b. London, 3
March, 1829.
Studied at Cambridge, graduated B.A. '52, and was called
to the bar in
'54. He was counsel for the Rev. Rowland Williams when
tried for
heresy for writing in Essays and Reviews, and his speech
was reprinted
in '62. He wrote in the Saturday Review, and reprinted
Essays by a
Barrister. From Dec. '69, to April, '72, he was Legal
Member of the
Indian Council, and in '79 was appointed judge. He is
author of
Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity, '73, and some valuable
legal works. He
has written much in the Nineteenth Century, notably
on the
Blasphemy Law '83, and Modern Catholicism, Oct. '87.
Stephen
(Leslie), English man of letters, brother of preceding,
b. London, 28
Nov. 1832. Educated at Cambridge where he graduated M.A.,
'57. He married
a daughter of Thackeray, and became editor of the
Cornhill
Magazine from '71-82, when he resigned to edit the Dictionary
of National
Biography. Mr. Stephen also contributed to Macmillan, the
Fortnightly,
and other reviews. Some of his boldest writing is found
in Essays on
Freethinking and Plainspeaking, '73. He has also written
an important
History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century,
'76, dealing
with the Deistic movement, and The Science of Ethics,
'82, besides
many literary works.
Stern (J).,
Rabbiner, German writer, b. of Jewish parents,
Liederstetten
(Wurtemburg), his father being Rabbi of the town. In
'58 he went to
the Talmud High School, Presburg and studied the
Kabbalah, which
he intended to translate into German. To do this he
studied
Spinoza, whose philosophy converted him. In '63 he graduated at
Stuttgart. He
founded a society, to which he gave discourses collected
in his first
book, Gottesflamme, '72. His Old and New Faith Among the
Jews, '78, was
much attacked by the orthodox Jews. In Women in the
Talmud, '79, he
pleaded for mixed marriages. He has also written Jesus
as a Jewish
Reformer, The Egyptian Religion and Positivism, and Is the
Pentateuch by
Moses? In '81 he went to live at Stuttgart, where he has
translated
Spinoza's Ethics, and is engaged on a history of Spinozism.
"Sterne
(Carus)"; pseud. See Krause (E).
Stevens (E.
A.), of Chicago, late secretary of American Secular Union,
b. 8 June,
1846. Author of God in the State, and contributor to the
American
Freethought journals.
Stewart (John),
commonly called Walking Stewart, b. London before
1750. Was sent
out in 1763 as a writer to Madras. He walked through
India, Africa,
and America. He was a Materialist. Died in London,
20 Feb. 1822.
"Stirner
(Max)." See Schmidt (Kaspar).
Stosch
(Friedrich Wilhelm), called also Stoss (Johann Friedrich),
b. Berlin,
1646, and studied at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. In 1692 he
published a
little book, Concordia rationis et fidei, Amst. [or rather
Berlin]. It was
rigorously suppressed, and the possession of the work
was threatened
with a penalty of five hundred thalers. Lange classes
him with German
Spinozists, and says "Stosch curtly denies not only
the
immateriality, but also the immortality of the soul." Died 1704.
Stout (Sir
Robert), New Zealand statesman, b. Lerwick (Shetland Isles),
1845. He became
a pupil teacher, and in '63 left for New Zealand. In
'67 he began
the study of the law, was elected to the General Assembly
in '75, and
became Attorney-General in March, '78. He has since been
Minister of
Education of the Colony.
Strange (Thomas
Lumsden), late Madras Civil Service, and for many
years a judge
of the High Court, Madras. A highly religious man, and
long an
Evangelical Christian, he joined the Plymouth Brethren, and
ended in being
a strong, and then weak Theist, and always an earnest
advocate of
practical piety in life and conduct, and a diligent
student and
writer. When judge, he sentenced a Brahmin to death,
and sought to
bring the prisoner "to Jesus." He professed himself
influenced, but
at the gallows "he proclaimed his trust to be in
Rama and not in
Christ." This set the judge thinking. He investigated
Christianity's
claims, and has embodied the result in his works. The
Bible, Is it
the Word of God? '71; The Speaker's Commentary Reviewed,
'71; The
Development of Creation on the Earth, '74; The Legends of the
Old Testament,
'74; and The Sources and Development of Christianity,
'75. A friend
of T. Scott and General Forlong, he died at Norwood,
4 Sept. 1884.
Strauss (David
Friedrich), German critic, b. Ludwigsburg (Wurtemburg),
27 Jan. 1808.
He studied Theology at Tübengen, was ordained in '30, and
in '32 became
assistant-teacher. His Life of Jesus Critically Treated,
'35, in which
he shows the mythical character of the Gospels, aroused
much
controversy, and he was deprived of his position. In '39 the
Zürich
Government appointed him professor of church history, but they
were obliged to
repeal their decision before the storm of Christian
indignation.
His next important work was on the Christian Doctrines
(2 vols.), '40.
In '47 he wrote on Julian the Apostle, and in '58 an
account of the
Life and Time of Ulrich von Hutten. He prepared a New
Life of Christ
for the German People, '64, followed by the Christ of
the Creeds and
the Jesus of History. In '70 he published his lectures
on Voltaire,
and two years later his last work The Old Faith and the
New, in which
he entirely breaks not only with Christianity but with
the belief in a
personal God and immortality. A devoted servant of
truth, his mind
was always advancing. He died at his native place,
8 Feb. 1874.
Strindberg
(Johan August), Swedish writer, known as the Scandinavian
Rousseau, b.
Stockholm, 22 Jan. 1849. He has published many prominent
rationalistic
works, as The Red Chamber and Marriage. The latter
was
confiscated. He is one of the most popular poets and novelists
in Sweden.
Stromer
(Hjalmar), Swedish astronomer, b. 1849. He lectured on
astronomy and
published several works thereon, and also wrote
Confessions of
a Freethinker. Died 1887.
Strozzi
(Piero), Italian general in the service of France, b. of
noble
Florentine family 1500. Intended for the Church he abandoned
it for a
military career, and was created marshal of France by Henry
II. about 1555.
He was killed at the siege of Thionville, 20 June
1558, and being
exhorted by the Duc de Guise to think of Jesus,
he calmly declared
himself an Atheist.
Suard (Jean
Baptiste Antione), French writer, b. Besançon, 15 Jan,
1734. He became
a devoted friend of Baron d'Holbach and of Garat,
and
corresponded with Hume and Walpole. He wrote Miscellanies of
Literature,
etc. He had the post of censor of theatres. Died at Paris
20 July, 1817.
Sue (Marie
Joseph, called Eugène), French novelist, b. Paris, 10
Dec. 1804. He
wrote many romances, of which The Mysteries of Paris
and The
Wandering Jew, '42-45, were the most popular. In '50 he was
elected deputy
and sat at the extreme left, but was exiled by the
coup d'etat. He
died as a Freethinker at Annecy (Savoy), 3 July 1857.
Sullivan (J.),
author of Search for Deity, an inquiry as to the origin
of the
conception of God (London, 1859).
Sully Prudhomme
(Renè François Armand), French poet, b. Paris, 16
March 1839. He
studied law but took to poetry and has published many
volumes. In '78
he was made Chevalier of Honor, and in '82 member of
the Academy.
His poems are of pessimistic cast, and full of delicacy
of
philosophical suggestion.
Sunderland (La
Roy), American author and orator, b. Exeter (Rhode
Island), 18
May, 1803. He became a Methodist preacher and was prominent
in the
temperance and anti-slavery movements. He came out of the Church
as the great
bulwark of slavery and opposed Christianity during the
forty years
preceding his death. He wrote many works against slavery
and Pathetism,
'47; Book of Human Nature, '53, and Ideology, 3 vols.,
'86-9. Died in
Quincy (Mass.) 15 May, 1885.
Suttner (Bertha
von), Baroness, Austrian author of Inventory of a Soul,
1886, and of
several novels.
Sutton (Henry
S.), anonymous author of Quinquenergia; or, Proposals
for a New
Practical Theology, and Letters from a Father to a Son on
Revealed
Religion.
Swinburne
(Algernon Charles), English poet and critic, b. London,
5 April, 1837,
educated at Oxford, and went to Florence, where he
spent some time
with W. S. Landor. Atalanta in Calydon, a splendid
reproduction of
Greek tragedy, first showed his genius. Poems and
Ballads, 1866,
evinced his unconventional lyrical passion and power,
and provoked
some outcry. In his Songs before Sunrise, 1871, he
glorifies
Freethought and Republicanism, with unsurpassed wealth
of diction and
rhythm. Mr. Swinburne has put forward many other
volumes of
melodious and dramatic poems, and also essays, studies,
and prose
miscellanies.
Symes (Joseph),
English lecturer and writer, b. Portland, 29 Jan. 1841,
of pious
Methodist parents. In '64 he offered himself as candidate for
the ministry, and
was sent to the Wesleyan College, Richmond, and in
'67 went on
circuit as preacher. Having come to doubt orthodoxy,
he resigned in
'72, preached his first open Freethought lecture
at Newcastle,
17 Dec. '76. Had several debates, wrote Philosophic
Atheism, Man's
Place in Nature, Hospitals not of Christian Origin,
Christianity a
Persecuting Religion, Blows at the Bible, etc. He
contributed to
the Freethinker, and was ready to conduct it during
Mr. Foote's
imprisonment. He went to Melbourne, Dec. '83, and there
established the
Liberator, and has written Life and Death of My
Religion, '84;
Christianity and Slavery, Phallic Worship, etc.
Symonds (John
Addington), English poet and author, b. Bristol,
5 Oct. 1840,
educated at Harrow and Oxford, and was elected in
'62 to a
Fellowship at Magdalen College, which he vacated on his
marriage. His
chief work is on the Renaissance in Italy, 7 vols.,
completed in
'86. He has also written critical sketches, studies,
and poems. Ill
health compels his living abroad.
Taine (Hippolyte
Adolphe), D.C.L., brilliant French man of letters,
b. Vouziers, 21
April, 1828. Educated at the College Bourbon (now the
Condorcet
Lyceum), in '53 he took the degree of Doctor of Letters. In
'56 appears his
French Philosophers of the Nineteenth Century, in which
he sharply
criticised the spiritualist and religious school. He came
to England and
studied English Literature; his Hand History of which
was sent in for
the Academy prize, '63, but rejected on the motion of
Bishop
Dupanloup on account of its materialist opinions. Also wrote
on English
Positivism, a study of J. S. Mill. In '71 Oxford made
him D.C.L., and
in Nov. '78, he was elected to the French Academy;
his latest work
is The Origins of Contemporary France.
Talandier
(Alfred), French publicist, b. Limoges, 7 Sept. 1828. After
entering the
bar, he became a socialist and took part in the revolution
of '48.
Proscribed after 12 Dec. he came to England, started trades
unions and
co-operation, translated Smiles's Self-Help, and wrote in
the National
Reformer. Returned to Paris in '70 and became professor at
the Lycée Henri
IV. In '74 he was deprived of his chair, but elected on
the Municipal
council of Paris, and two years later chosen as deputy,
and was
re-elected in '81. In '83 he published a Popular Rabelais
and has written
in Our Corner on that great Freethinker.
Taubert (A.),
the maiden name of Dr. Hartmann's first wife. She wrote
The Pessimists
and their Opponents, 1873.
Taule
(Ferdinand), M.D., of Strassburg, author of Notions on the
Nature and
Properties of Organised Matter. Paris, 1866.
Taurellus
(Nicolaus), German physician and philosopher, b. Montbéhard,
26 Nov. 1547,
studied medicine at Tübingen and Basle. For daring to
think for
himself, and asking how the Aristotelian doctrine of the
eternity of the
world could be reconciled with the dogma of creation,
he was
stigmatised as an atheist. Wrote many works in Latin, the
principal of
which is Philosophiæ Triumphans, 1573. He died of the
plague 28 Sept.
1606.
Taylor
(Robert), ex-minister, orator, and critic, b. Edmonton,
18 Aug. 1784.
In 1805 he walked Guy's and St. Thomas's Hospital,
and became
M.R.C.S., 1807. Persuaded to join the Church, he entered
St. John's,
Cambridge, Oct. 1809, in Jan. '13 graduated B.A., and
soon after took
holy orders. He was curate at Midhurst till '18, when
he first became
sceptical through discussions with a tradesman. He
preached a
sermon on Jonah which astonished his flock, and resigned. He
then went to
Dublin and published The Clerical Review and started
"The
Society of Universal Benevolence." In '24 he came to London and
started
"The Christian Evidence Society," and delivered discourses with
discussion;
also edited the Philalethian. In '27 he was indicted for
blasphemy,
tried Oct. 24, after an able defence he was found guilty,
and on 7 Feb.
'28 sentenced to one year's imprisonment in Oakham
Gaol. Here he
wrote his Syntagma on the Evidences of Christianity,
and his chief
work, The Diegesis, being a discovery of the origins,
evidences, and
early history of Christianity. He also contributed a
weekly letter
to The Lion, which R. Carlile started on his behalf. On
his liberation
they both went on "an infidel mission" about the
country, and on
May 30 the Rotunda, Blackfriars, was taken, where
Taylor attired
in canonicals delivered the discourses published in
The Devil's
Pulpit. He was again prosecuted, and on 4 July, '31, was
sentenced to
two year's imprisonment. He was badly treated in gaol,
and soon after
coming out married a wealthy lady and retired. Died
at Jersey, 5
June, 1844.
Taylor
(Thomas), known as "The Platonist," b. London, 1758. He
devoted his
life to the elucidation and propagation of the Platonic
philosophy. He
translated the works of Plato, Aristotle, Porphyry, five
books of
Plotinus, six books of Proclus, Gamblichus on the Mysteries,
Arguments of
Celsus taken from Origen, Arguments of Julian against
the Christians,
Orations of Julian, etc. He is said to have been so
thorough a
Pagan that he sacrificed a bull to Zeus. Died in Walworth,
1 Nov. 1835.
Taylor
(William), of Norwich, b. 7 Nov. 1765. He formed an acquaintance
with Southey,
with whom he corresponded. His translations from
the German,
notably Lessing's Nathan the Wise, brought him some
repute. He also
wrote a Survey of German Poetry and English Synonyms,
1830. He edited
the Norwich Iris, 1802, which he made the organ of his
political and
religions views. In '10 he published anonymously A Letter
Concerning the
Two First Chapters of Luke, also entitled Who was the
Father of Jesus
Christ? 1810, in which he argues that Zacharias was
the father of
Jesus Christ. Also wrote largely in the Monthly Review,
replying
therein to the Abbé Barruel; and the Critical Review when
edited by
Fellowes, in which he gave an account of the rationalism
of Paulus. Died
at Norwich, 5 March, 1836.
Tchernychewsky
(N. G.) See Chernuishevsky.
"Tela
(Josephus)," the Latinised name of Joseph Webbe who in 1818
edited the
Philosophical Library, containing the Life and Morals of
Confucius,
Epicurus, Isoscrates, Mahomet, etc., and other pieces. Webbe
is also thought
to have been concerned in the production of Ecce Homo,
'13. Cushing,
in his Initials and Pseudonyms, refers Tela to "Joseph
Webb,"
1735-87; an American writer; Grand Master of Freemasons in
America; died
in Boston." I am not satisfied that this is the same
person.
Telesio
(Bernardino), Italian philosopher, b. of noble family at
Cosenza, 1509.
He studied at Padua, and became famous for his learning,
optical
discoveries, and new opinions in philosophy. He wrote in
Latin On the
Nature of Things according to Proper Principles, 1565. He
opposed the
Aristotelian doctrine in physics, and employed mathematical
principles in
explaining nature, for which he was prosecuted by the
clergy. He died
Oct. 1588. His works were placed in the Index, but
this did not
prevent their publication at Venice, 1590.
Telle
(Reinier), or Regnerus Vitellius, Dutch Humanist, b. Zierikzee,
1578. He
translated Servetus On the Errors of the Trinity, published
1620. Died at
Amsterdam, 1618.
Testa (Giacinto),
of Messina, Italian author of a curious Storia di
Gesù di
Nazareth, 1870, in which he maintains that Jesus was the son
of Giuseppe
Pandera, a Calabrian of Brindisi.
Thaer (Albrecht
Daniel). German agriculturist, b. Celle, 14 May,
1752. Studied
at Gottingen, and is said to have inspired Lessing's
work on The
Education of the Human Race. Died 28 Oct. 1828.
Theodorus of
Cyrene, a Greek philosopher, whose opinions resembled
those of
Epicurus. He was banished for Atheism from his native city. He
resided at
Athens about 312 B.C. When threatened with crucifixion, he
said it
mattered little whether he rotted in the ground or in the air.
Theophile de
Viau, French satiric poet, b. Clerac, 1590. For the
alleged
publication of Le Parnasse Satyriques, he was accused of
Atheism,
condemned to death, and burnt in effigy. He fled, and was
received by the
Duc de Montmorency at Chantilly, where he died,
25 Sept. 1626.
Thompson
(Daniel Greenleaf), American author of works on The Problem
of Evil, '87;
The Religious Sentiments, etc. He is President of the
Nineteenth
Century Club.
Thomson
(Charles Otto), Captain, b. Stockholm, 3 Jan. 1833. Went to
sea in '49 and
became a merchant captain in '57, and was subsequently
manager of the
Eskilstuna gas works. At Eskilstuna he started a
Utilitarian
Society in '88, of which he is president. He has done
much to support
Mr. Lennstrand in his Freethought work in Sweden; has
translated
articles by Ingersoll, Foote and others, and has lectured
on behalf of
the movement. He shares in the conduct of Fritänkaren.
Thomson
(James), Pessimistic poet, b. Port Glasgow, 23
Nov. 1834.
Educated at the Caledonian Asylum, London, he became
a schoolmaster
in the army, where he met Mr. Bradlaugh, whom he
afterwards
assisted on the National Reformer. To this paper he
contributed
many valuable essays, translations, and poems, including
his famous
"City of Dreadful Night," the most powerful pessimistic
poem in the
English language, (April, '74, afterwards published with
other poems in
'80). "Vane's Story" with other poems was issued in
'81, and
"A Voice from the Nile," and "Shelley" (privately printed
in
'84). Thomson
also contributed to the Secularist and Liberal, edited
by his friend
Foote, who has published many of his articles in a
volume entitled
Satires and Profanities, which includes "The Story of
a Famous Old
Jewish Firm," also published separately. Thomson employed
much of his
genius in the service of Freethought. Died 3 June, 1882.
Thomson
(William), of Cork. A disciple of Bentham, and author of The
Distribution of
Wealth, 1824; Appeal for Women, '25; Labor Reward,
'27, and in the
Co-operative Magazine.
Thorild
(Thomas), or Thoren, Swedish writer, b. Bohuslau, 18 April,
1759. In 1775
he studied at Lund, and in 1779 went to Stockholm,
and published many
poems and miscellaneous pieces in Swedish, Latin,
German, and
English, in which he wrote Cromwell, an epic poem. In
1786 he wrote
Common Sense on Liberty, with a view of extending the
liberty of the
press. He was a partisan of the French Revolution,
and for a
political work was imprisoned and exiled. He also wrote a
Sermon of
Sermons, attacking the clergy, and a work maintaining the
rights of
women. Died at Greifswald; 1 Oct. 1808. He was a man far
in advance of
his time, and is now becoming appreciated.
Thulie (Jean
Baptiste Henri), French physician and anthropologist,
b. Bordeaux,
1832. In '56 he founded a journal, "Realism." In '66 he
published a
work on Madness and the Law. He contributed to La Pensée
Nouvelle,
defending the views of Büchner. He has written an able study,
La Femme,
Woman, published in '85. M. Thulie has been President of
the Paris
Municipal Council.
Tiele (Cornelis
Petrus), Dutch scholar, b. Leyden, 16
Dec. 1830.
Although brought up in the Church, his works all tell in
the service of
Freethought, and he has shown his liberality of views
in editing the
poems of Genestet together with his life, '68. He has
written many
articles on comparative religion, and two of his works
have been
translated into English, viz., Outlines of the History of
Religion, a
valuable sketch of the old faiths, fourth ed. '88; and
Comparative
History of the Egyptian and Mesopotamian Religions, '82.
Tillier
(Claude), French writer, b. of poor parents, Clamecy,
11 April, 1801.
He served as a conscript, and wrote some telling
pamphlets
directed against tyranny and superstition, and some novels,
of which we
note My Uncle Benjamin. Died at Nevers, 12 Oct. 1844. His
works were
edited by F. Pyat.
Tindal
(Matthew), LL.D., English Deist, b. Beer-ferris, Devon,
1657. Educated
at Oxford, and at first a High Churchman, he was
induced to turn
Romanist in the reign of James II., but returned to
Protestantism
and wrote The Rights of the Christian Church. This work
was much
attacked by the clergy, who even indicted the vendors. A
defence which
he published was ordered to be burnt by the House of
Commons. In
1730 he published Christianity as Old as the Creation, to
which no less
than 150 answers were published. He died 16 Aug. 1733,
and a second
volume, which he left in MS., was destroyed by order of
Gibson, Bishop
of London.
Toland (John),
Irish writer, b. Redcastle, near Londonderry, 30
Nov. 1669.
Educated as a Catholic, he renounced that faith in early
youth, went to
Edinburgh University, where he became M.A. in 1690,
and proceeded
to Leyden, studying under Spanheim, and becoming a
sceptic. He
also studied at Oxford, reading deeply in the Bodleian
Library, and
became the correspondent of Le Clerc and Bayle. In
1696 he
startled the orthodox with his Christianity not Mysterious,
which was
"presented" by the Grand Jury of Middlesex and condemned by
the Lower House
of Convocation. The work was also burnt at Dublin,
Sept. 1697. He
wrote a Life of Milton (1698), in which, mentioning
Eikon Basilike,
he referred to the "suppositious pieces under the
name of Christ,
his apostles and other great persons." For this he was
denounced by
Dr. Blackhall before Parliament. He replied with Amytor,
in which he
gives a catalogue of such pieces. He went abroad and
was well
received by the Queen of Prussia, to whom he wrote Letters
to Serena
(1704), which, says Lange, "handles the kernel of the
whole question
of Materialism." In 1709 he published Adeisidænon and
Origines
Judaicæ. In 1718 Nazarenus, on Jewish, Gentile and Mahommedan
Christianity,
in which he gave an account of the Gospel of Barnabus. He
also wrote four
pieces entitled Tetradymus and Pantheisticon, which
described a
society of Pantheists with a liturgy burlesquing that
of the
Catholics. Toland died with the calmness of a philosopher,
at Putney, 11
March, 1722. Lange praises him highly.
Tollemache
(Hon. Lionel Arthur), b. 1838, son of Baron Tollemache,
a friend of C.
Austin, of whom he has written. Wrote many articles
in Fortnightly
Review, reprinted (privately) as Stones of Stumbling,
'84. Has also
written Safe Studies, '84; Recollections of Pallison,
'85; and Mr.
Romanes's Catechism, '87.
Tone (Theobald
Wolfe), Irish patriot, b. Dublin, 20 June,
1763. Educated
at Trinity College in 1784, he obtained a scholarship
in 1786, B.A.
He founded the Society of United Irishmen, 1791. Kept
relations with
the French revolutionists, and in 1796 induced the
French
Directory to send an expedition against England. He was taken
prisoner and
committed suicide in prison, dying 19 Nov. 1798.
Topinard (Paul),
M.D., French anthropologist, b. Isle-Adam 1830. Editor
of the Revue
d'Anthropologie, and author of a standard work on that
subject
published in the Library of Contemporary Science.
Toulmin (George
Hoggart), M.D., of Wolverhampton. Author of The
Antiquity and
Duration of the World, 1785; The Eternity of the
Universe, 1789;
the last being republished in 1825.
Tournai (Simon
de). See Simon.
Traina
(Tommaso), Italian jurist. Author of a work on The Ethics of
Herbert
Spencer, Turin, 1881.
Travis (Henry),
Dr., b. Scarborough, 1807. He interested himself
in the
socialistic aspect of co-operation, and became a friend and
literary
executor to Robert Owen. In '51-53 he edited Robert Owen's
Journal. He
also wrote on Effectual Reform, Free Will and Law, Moral
Freedom and
Causation, and A Manual of Social Science, and contributed
to the National
Reformer. Died 4 Feb. 1884.
Trelawny
(Edward John), b. Cornwall, Nov. 1792. Became intimate in
Italy with
Shelley, whose body he recovered and cremated in August,
1822. He
accompanied Byron on his Greek expedition, and married a
daughter of a
Greek chief. He wrote Adventures of a Younger Son,
'31; and
Records of Shelley, Byron, and the Author, '78. He died 13
Aug. 1881, and
was cremated at Gotha, his ashes being afterwards placed
beside those of
Shelley. Trelawny was a vehement Pagan despising the
creeds and
conventions of society. Swinburne calls him "World-wide
liberty's
lifelong lover."
Trenchard
(John), English Deist and political writer, b. Somersetshire,
1669. He studied
law, but abandoned it, and was appointed Commissioner
of Forfeited
Estates in Ireland. In conjunction with Gordon he
wrote Cato's
Letters on civil and religious liberty, and conducted
The Independent
Whig. He sat in the House of Commons as M.P. for
Taunton; he
also wrote the Natural History of Superstition, 1709; but
La Contagion
Sacree, attributed to him, is really by d'Holbach. Died
17 Dec. 1723.
Trevelyan
(Arthur), of Tyneholm, Tranent, N.B., a writer in the
Reasoner and
National Reformer. Published The Insanity of Mankind
(Edinburgh,
1850), and some tracts. He was a Vice-President of the
National
Secular Society. Died at Tyneholm, 6 Feb. 1878.
Trezza
(Gaetano), Italian writer, b. Verona, Dec. 1828. Was brought
up and ordained
a priest, and was an eloquent preacher. Study led him
to resign the
clerical profession. He has published Confessions of a
Sceptic, '78;
Critical Studies, '78; New Critical Studies, '81. He is
Professor of
Literature at the Institute of High Studies, Florence. To
the first number
of the Revue Internationale '83, he contributed Les
Dieux s'en
vont. He also wrote Religion and Religions, '84; and a work
on St. Paul. A
study on Lucretius has reached its third edition, '87.
Tridon (Edme
Marie, Gustave), French publicist, b. Chatillon sur
Seine,
Burgundy, 5 June, 1841. Educated by his parents who were rich,
he became a
doctor of law but never practised. In '64 he published in
Le Journal des
Ecoles, his remarkable study of revolutionary history
Les
Hébertistes. In May, '65 he founded with Blanqui, etc., Le Candide,
the precursor
of La Libre Pensée, '66, in both of which the doctrines
of materialism
were expounded. Delegated in '65 to the International
Students
Congress at Liége his speech was furiously denounced by Bishop
Dupanloup; he
got more than two years' imprisonment for articles in
Le Candide and
La Libre Pensée, and in Ste Pelagie contracted the
malady which
killed him. While in prison he wrote the greater part
of his work Du
Molochisme Juif, critical and philosophical studies
of the Jewish
religion, only published in '84. After 4 Sept. '70,
he founded La
Patrie en Danger. In Feb. '71 he was elected deputy to
the Bordeaux
Assembly, but resigned after voting against declaration
of peace. He
then became a member of the Paris Commune, retiring after
the collapse to
Brussels where he died 29 Aug. 1871. He received the
most splendid
Freethinker's funeral witnessed in Belgium.
Truebner
(Nicolas), publisher, b. Heidelberg, 17 June, 1817. After
serving with
Longman and Co., he set up in business, and distinguished
himself by
publishing works on Freethought, religions, philosophy
and Oriental
literature. Died London, 30 March, 1884.
Truelove
(Edward), English publisher, b. 29 Oct. 1809. Early in
life he
embraced the views of Robert Owen, and for nine years was
secretary of
the John Street Institution. In '44 and '45 he threw
in his lot with
the New Harmony Community, Hampshire. In '52 he
took a shop in
the Strand, where he sold advanced literature. He
published
Voltaire's Philosophical Dictionary and Romances, Paine's
complete works,
D'Holbach's System of Nature, and Taylor's Syntagma
and Diegesis.
In '58 he was prosecuted for publishing a pamphlet on
Tyrannicide, by
W. E. Adams, but the prosecution was abandoned. In
'78 he was,
after two trials, sentenced to four months' imprisonment
for publishing
R. D. Owen's Moral Physiology. Upon his release he
was presented
with a testimonial and purse of 200 sovereigns.
Trumbull
(Matthew M.), American general, a native of London,
b. 1826. About
the age of twenty he went to America, served in the
army in Mexico,
and afterwards in the Civil War. General Grant made
him Collector
of Revenue for Iowa. He held that office eight years,
and then
visited England. In 1882 he went to Chicago, where he exerted
himself on
behalf of a fair trial for the Anarchists.
Tschirnhausen
(Walthier Ehrenfried), German Count, b. 1651. He was a
friend of
Leibniz and Wolff, and in philosophy a follower of Spinoza,
though he does
not mention him. Died 1708.
Tucker
(Benjamin R.), American writer, b. Dartmouth, Mass., 17 April,
1854. Edits
Liberty, of Boston.
Turbiglio
(Sebastiano), Italian philosopher, b. Chiusa, 7 July, 1842,
author of a
work on Spinoza and the Transformation of his Thoughts,
1875.
Turgenev (Ivan
Sergyeevich), Russian novelist, b. Orel, 28
Oct. 1818. In
his novels, Fathers and Sons and Virgin Soil he has
depicted
characters of the Nihilist movement. Died at Bougival,
near Paris, 3
Sept. 1883.
Turner
(William), a surgeon of Liverpool, who, under the name of
William Hammon,
published an Answer to Dr. Priestley's Letters to a
Philosophical
Unbeliever, 1782, in which he avows himself an Atheist.
Tuuk (Titia,
Van der), Dutch lady, b. Zandt, 27 Nov. 1854. Was
converted to
Freethought by reading Dekker, and is now one of the
editors of De
Dageraad.
Twesten (Karl),
German publicist and writer, b. Kiel, 22 April,
1820. Studied
law, '38-41, in Berlin and Heidelberg, and became
magistrate in
Berlin and one of the founders of the National Liberal
Party. Wrote on
the religious, political, and social ideas of Asiatics
and Egyptians
(2 vols.), '72. Died Berlin, 14 Oct. 1870.
Tylor (Edward
Burnet), D.C.L., F.R.S., English anthropologist,
b. Camberwell,
2 Oct. 1832. He has devoted himself to the study
of the races of
mankind, and is the first living authority upon
the subject. He
has wrote Anahuac, or Mexico and the Mexicans, '61;
Researches into
the Early History of Mankind, '65; Primitive Culture;
being
researches into the development of mythology, philosophy,
religion, art, and
custom (2 vols.), '71. In this splendid work he
traces religion
to animism, the belief in spirits. He has also written
an excellent
handbook of Anthropology, an introduction to the Study
of Man and
Civilisation, '81; and contributed to the Encyclopædia
Britannica, as
well as to periodical literature. He is President of
the
Anthropological Society.
Tyndall (John),
LL.D., F.R.S., Irish scientist, b. near Carlow,
1820. In '47 he
became a teacher in Queenswood College (Hants), and
afterwards went
to Germany to study. In '56 he went to Switzerland
with Professor
Huxley, and they wrote a joint work on glaciers. He
contributed to
the Fortnightly Review, notably an article on Miracles
and Special
Providence, '66. In '72 he went on a lecturing tour in
the United
States, and two years later was president of the British
Association.
His address at Belfast made a great stir, and has been
published. In
addition to other scientific works he has published
popular
Fragments of Science, which has gone through several editions.
Tyrell (Henry).
See Church.
Tyssot de Patot
(Simon), b. of French family in Delft, 1655. He
became
professor of mathematics at Deventer. Under the pen name of
"Jacques
Massé" he published Voyages and Adventures, Bordeaux, 1710,
a work termed
atheistic and scandalous by Reimmann. It was translated
into English by
S. Whatley, 1733, and has been attributed to Bayle.
Ueberweg
(Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Leichlingen 22 Jan. 1826;
studied at
Göttingen and Berlin, and became Professor of Philosophy at
Königsberg,
where he died 9 June, 1871. His chief work is a History
of Philosophy.
Lange cites Czolbe as saying "He was in every way
distinctly an
Atheist and Materialist."
Uhlich (Johann
Jacob Marcus Lebericht), German religious reformer,
b. Köthen 27
Feb. 1799. He studied at Halle and became a preacher. For
his
rationalistic views he was suspended in 1847, and founded the
Free
Congregation at Magdeburg. He wrote numerous brochures defending
his opinions.
His Religion of Common Sense has been translated and
published in
America. Died at Magdeburg, 23 March, 1872.
Ule (Otto),
German scientific writer, b. Lossow 22 Jan. 1820. Studied
at Halle and
Berlin. In '52 he started the journal Die Natur, and
wrote many
works popularising science. Died at Halle 6 Aug. 1876.
Underwood
(Benjamin F.). American lecturer and writer, b. New York
6 July, 1839.
Has been a student and a soldier in the Civil War. He
fought at
Ball's Bluff, Virginia, 21 Oct. '61, was wounded and held
prisoner in
Richmond for nine months. In '81 he edited the Index in
conjunction
with Mr. Potter, and in '87 started The Open Court at
Chicago. He has
had numerous debates; those with the Rev. J. Marples
and O. A.
Burgess being published. He has also published Essays and
Lectures, The
Religion of Materialism, Influence of Christianity
on
Civilisation, etc. His sister, Sara A., has written Heroines of
Freethought,
New York, 1876.
Vacherot
(Etienne), French writer, b. Langres, 29 July, 1809. In '39 he
replaced Victor
Cousin in the Chair of Philosophy at the Sorbonne. For
his free
opinions expressed in his Critical History of the School
of Alexandria,
a work in three vols. crowned by the Institute,
'46-51, he was
much attacked by the clergy and at the Empire lost
his position.
He afterwards wrote Essays of Critical Philosophy,
'64, and La
Religion, '69.
Vacquerie
(Auguste), French writer, b. Villequier, 1819. A friend of
Victor Hugo. He
has written many dramas and novels of merit, and was
director of Le
Rappel.
Vaillant
(Edouard Marie), French publicist, b. Vierzon, 26
Jan. 1840.
Educated at Paris and Germany. A friend of Tridon he
took part in
the Commune, and in '84 was elected Muncipal Councillor
of Paris.
Vairasse
(Denis) d'Alais, French writer of the seventeenth century. He
became both
soldier and lawyer. Author of Histoire des Sevarambes,
1677; imaginary
travels in which he introduced free opinions and
satirised
Christianity.
Vale (Gilbert)
author, b. London, 1788. He was intended for the church,
but abandoned
the profession and went to New York, where he edited
the Citizen of
the World and the Beacon. He published Fanaticism;
its Source and
Influence, N.Y. 1835, and a Life of Paine, '41. Died
Brooklyn, N.Y.
17 Aug. 1866.
Valk (T. A. F.
van der), Dutch Freethinker, who, after being a
Christian
missionary in Java, changed his opinions, and wrote in De
Dageraad
between 1860-70, using the pen name of "Thomas."
Valla
(Lorenzo), Italian critic, b. Piacenza, 1415. Having hazarded
some free
opinions respecting Catholic doctrines, he was condemned to
be burnt, but
was saved by Alphonsus, King of Naples. Valla was then
confined in a
monastery, but Pope Nicholas V. called him to Rome and
gave him a
pension. He died there, 1 Aug. 1457.
Vallee
(Geoffrey), French martyr, b. Orleans, 1556. He wrote La
Béatitude des
Chréstiens ou le Fléo de la Foy, for which he was accused
of blasphemy,
and hanged on the Place de Gréve, Paris, 9 Feb. 1574.
Valliss
(Rudolph), German author of works on The Natural History
of Gods (Leip.,
1875); The Eternity of the World, '75; Catechism of
Human Duty,
'76, etc.
Van Cauberg
(Adolphe), Belgian advocate. One of the founders and
president of
the International Federation of Freethinkers. Died 1886.
Van Effen. See
Effen.
Vanini
(Lucilio, afterwards Julius Cæsar), Italian philosopher and
martyr, b.
Taurisano (Otranto), 1585. At Rome and Padua he studied
Averroism,
entered the Carmelite order, and travelled in Switzerland,
Germany,
Holland and France making himself admired and respected by
his
rationalistic opinions. He returned to Italy in 1611, but the
Inquisition was
on his track and he took refuge at Venice. In 1612 he
visited
England, and in 1614 got lodged in the Tower. When released
he went to
Paris and published a Pantheistic work in Latin On the
Admirable
Secrets of Nature, the Queen and Goddess of Mortals. It was
condemned by
the Sorbonne and burnt, and he fled to Toulouse in 1617;
but there was
no repose for Freethought. He was accused of instilling
Atheism into
his scholars, tried and condemned to have his tongue cut
out, his body
burned and his ashes scattered to the four winds. This
was done 19
Feb. 1619. President Gramond, author of History of France
under Louis
XIII., writes "I saw him in the tumbril as they led him
to execution,
mocking the Cordelier who had been sent to exhort him
to repentance,
and insulting our Savior by these impious words. 'He
sweated with
fear and weakness, and I die undaunted.'"
Vapereau (Louis
Gustave), French man of letters, b. Orleans 4 April,
1819. In '41 he
became the secretary of Victor Cousin. He collaborated
on the
Dictionnaire des Sciences Philosophiques and the Liberté
de Penser, but
is best known by his useful Dictionnaire Universel
des
Contemporains. In '70 he was nominated prefect of Cantal, but
on account of
the violent attacks of the clericals was suspended in
'73 and resumed
his literary labors, compiling a Universal Dictionary
of Writers,
'76, and Elements of the History of French Literature,
1883-85.
Varnhagen von
Ense (Earl August Ludwig Philipp), German author,
b. Dusseldorf,
21 Feb. 1785. He studied medicine and philosophy,
entered the
Austrian and Russian armies, and served in the Prussian
diplomatic
service. He was an intimate friend of Alex. von Humboldt,
and shared his
Freethinking opinions. Died in Berlin, 10 Oct. 1858. He
vividly depicts
the men and events of his time in his Diary.
Vauvenargues
(Luc de Clapiers), Marquis; French moralist, b. Aix,
6 Aug. 1715. At
eighteen he entered the army, and left the service
with ruined
health in 1743. He published in 1746 an Introduction to
the Knowledge
of the Human Mind, followed by Reflections and Maxims,
which was
deservedly praised by his friend Voltaire. Died at Paris 28
May, 1747. His
work, which though but mildly deistic, was rigorously
suppressed, and
was reprinted about 1770.
Velthuysen
(Lambert), Dutch physician, b. Utrecht, 1622. He wrote
many works on
theology and philosophy in Latin. His works, De Officio
Pastorum and De
Idolatria et Superstitione were proceeded against in
1668, but he
was let off with a fine. Died 1685.
Venetianer
(Moritz), German Pantheist, author of Der Allgeist, 1874,
and a work on
Schopenhauer as a Scholastic.
Vereschagin
(Vasily), Russian painter, b. Novgorod, 1842. He studied
at Paris under
Gerome, took part in the Russo-Turkish war, and has
travelled
widely. The realistic and anti-religious conceptions of his
Holy Family and
Resurrection were the cause of their being withdrawn
from the Vienna
Exhibition in Oct. '85, by order of the archbishop. In
his
Autobiographical Sketches, translated into English, '87, he shows
his free
opinions.
Vergniaud
(Pierre Victurnien), French Girondist orator, b. Limoges,
31 May, 1759.
He studied law, and became an advocate. Elected to
the Legislative
Assembly in 1791, he also became President of the
Convention. At
the trial of the King he voted for the appeal to
the people, but
that being rejected, voted death. With Gensonné
and Guadet, he
opposed the sanguinary measures of Robespierre, and,
being beaten in
the struggle, was executed with the Girondins, 31
Oct. 1793. Vergniaud
was a brilliant speaker. He said: "Reason thinks,
Religion
dreams." He had prepared poison for himself, but as there
was not enough
for his comrades, he resolved to suffer with them.
Verlet (Henri),
French founder and editor of a journal, La Libre
Pensée, 1871,
and author of a pamphlet on Atheism and the Supreme
Being.
Verliere
(Alfred), French author of a Guide du Libre-Penseur (Paris,
1869);
collaborated La Libre Pensée, Rationaliste, etc. To Bishop
Dupanloup's
Athéisme et Peril Social he replied with Deisme et Peril
Social, for
which he was condemned to several months' imprisonment.
Vermersch
(Eugène), French journalist, b. Lille about 1840. Took part
in the Commune,
and has written on many Radical papers.
Vernes
(Maurice), French critic, b. Mauroy, 1845. Has published
Melanges de
Critique Religieuse, and translated from Kuenen and Tiele.
Veron (Eugène),
French writer and publicist, b. Paris, 29 May, 1825. He
wrote on many
journals, founded La France Republicaine at Lyons, and
l'Art at Paris.
Besides historical works he has written L'Esthetique
in the
"Library of Contemporary Science," '78; The Natural History
of Religions, 2
vols., in the Bibliothèque Materialiste, '84; and La
Morale, '84.
Viardot
(Louis), French writer, b. Dijon, 31 July, 1800. He came
to Paris and
became an advocate, but after a voyage in Spain, left
the bar for
literature, writing on the Globe National and Siècle. In
'41 he founded
the Revue Independante with "George Sand," and Pierre
Leroux. He made
translations from the Russian, and in addition to many
works on art he
wrote The Jesuits, '57; Apology of an Unbeliever,
translated into
English, '69, and republished as Libre Examen,
'71. Died 1883.
Vico (Giovanni
Battista), Italian philosopher, b. Naples 1668. He
became Professor
of Rhetoric in the University of that city, and
published a New
Science of the Common Nature of Nations, 1725, in
which he argues
that the events of history are determined by immutable
laws. It
presents many original thoughts. Died Naples, 21 Jan. 1743.
Virchow
(Rudolf), German anthropologist, b. Schivelbein Pomerania,
13 Oct. 1821.
Studied medicine at Berlin and became lecturer, member
of the National
Assembly of '48, and Professor of Pathological
Anatomy at
Berlin. His Cellular Pathology, '58, established his
reputation. He
was chosen deputy and rose to the leadership of the
Liberal
opposition. His scientific views are advanced although he
opposed the
Haeckel in regard to absolute teaching of evolution.
Vischer
(Friedrich Theodor), German art critic, b. Ludwigsburg,
30 June, 1807.
Was educated for the Church, became a minister, but
renounced
theology and became professor of and is
Jahrbücher der
Gegenwart, '44,
was accused of blasphemy and for his Freethinking
opinions he was
suspended two years. At the revolution of '48 he
was elected to
the National Assembly. In '55 he became Professor
at Zürich. His
work on Æsthetic, or the Science of the Beautiful,
'46-54, is
considered classic. He has also written, Old and New,
'81, and
several anonymous works. Died Gmunden, 14 Sept. 1887.
Vitry (Guarin
de) French author of a Rapid Examination of Christian
Dogma,
addressed to the Council of 1869.
Vloten
(Johannes van), Dutch writer, b. Kampen, 18 Jan. 1818; studied
theology at
Leiden and graduated D.D. in '43. He has, however, devoted
himself to
literature, and produced many works, translating plays of
Shakespeare,
editing Spinoza, and writing his life--translated into
English by A.
Menzies. He edited also De Levensbode, 1865, etc.
Voelkel
(Titus), Dr., German lecturer and writer, b. Wirsitz (Prussian
Poland) 14 Dec.
1841. Studied ('59-65) theology, natural philosophy,
and
mathematics, and spent some years in France. He returned '70,
and was for ten
years employed as teacher at higher schools. Since
'80 has been
"sprecher" of Freethought associations and since '85
editor of the
Neues Freireligiöses Sonntags-Blatt, at Magdeburg. In
'88 he was
several times prosecuted for blasphemy and each time
acquitted. He
represented several German societies at the Paris
Congress of
Freethinkers, '89.
Voglet
(Prosper), Belgian singer, b. Brussels, 1825. He was blinded
through his
baptism by a Catholic priest, and has in consequence to
earn his living
as a street singer. His songs, of his own composition,
are
anti-religious. Many have appeared in La Tribune du Peuple,
which he
edited.
Vogt (Karl),
German scientist, b. Giessen, 5 July, 1817, the
son of a
distinguished naturalist. He studied medicine and became
acquainted with
Agassiz. In '48 he was elected deputy to the National
Assembly.
Deprived of his chair and exiled, he became professor
of Natural
History at Geneva. His lectures on Man, His Position in
Creation and in
the History of the Earth, '63, made a sensation by
their
endorsement of Darwinism. They were translated into English
and published
by the Anthropological Society. He has also written
a Manual of
Geology, Physiological Letters, Zoological Letters,
Blind Faith and
Science, etc., and has contributed to the leading
Freethought
journals of Germany and Switzerland.
Volkmar
(Gustav), Swiss critic, b. Hersfeld, 11 Jan. 1809. Studied at
Marburg '29-32;
became privat docent at Zurich, '53, and professor
'63. He has
written rationalist works on the Gospel of Marcion,
'52; Justin
Martyr, '53; the Origin of the Gospels, '66; Jesus and
the first
Christian Ages, '82, etc.
Volney
(Constantin François Chassebouf de), Count, French philosopher,
b. Craon
(Anjou) 3 Feb. 1757. Having studied at Ancenis and Angers,
he went to
Paris in 1774. Here he met D'Holbach and others. In 1783
he started for
Egypt and Syria, and in 1787 published an account of
his travels.
Made Director of Commerce in Corsica, he resigned on
being elected
to the Assembly. Though a wealthy landlord, he wrote
and spoke for
division of landed property. In 1791 his eloquent Ruins
appeared.
During the Terror he was imprisoned for ten months. In '95
he visited
America. Returning to France, Napoleon asked him to become
colleague in
the consulship but Volney declined. He remonstrated
with Napoleon
when he re-established Christianity by the Concordat,
April 1802.
Among his other works was a History of Samuel and the
Law of Nature.
Died 25 April, 1820.
Voltaire
(François Marie. Arouet de), French poet, historian and
philosopher, b.
Paris 21 Nov. 1694. Educated by the Jesuits, he
early
distinguished himself by his wit. For a satirical pamphlet on
the death of
Louis XIV he was sent to the Bastille for a year and
was afterwards
committed again for a quarrel with the Chevalier de
Rohan. On his
liberation he came to England at the invitation of Lord
Bolingbroke,
and became acquainted with the English Freethinkers. His
Lettres
Philosophiques translated as "Letters on the English," 1732,
gave great
offence to the clergy and was condemned to be burnt. About
1735 he retired
to the estate of the Marquise de Châtelet at Cirey,
where he
produced many plays. We may mention Mahomet, dedicated
to the Pope,
who was unable to see that its shafts were aimed at
the pretences
of the church. In 1750 he accepted the invitation
of Frederick
II. to reside at his court. But he could not help
laughing at the
great king's poetry. The last twenty years of his
life was passed
at Ferney near the Genevan territory, which through
his exertions
became a thriving village. He did more than any other
man of his century
to abolish torture and other relics of barbarism,
and to give
just notions of history. To the last he continued to wage
war against
intolerance and superstition. His works comprise over a
thousand pieces
in seventy volumes. Over fifty works were condemned
by the Index,
and Voltaire used no less than one hundred and thirty
different
pen-names. His name has risen above the clouds of detraction
made by his
clerical enemies. Died 30 May, 1778.
Voo (G. W. van
der), Dutch writer, b. 6 April, 1806. For more than
half a century
he was schoolmaster and teacher of the French language
at Rotterdam,
where he still lives. He contributed many articles to
De Dageraad.
Vosmaer
(Carel), Dutch writer, b. the Hague 20 March, 1826. Studied law
at Leyden. He
edited the Tydstroom (1858-9) and Spectator (1860-73),
and wrote
several works on Dutch art and other subjects. Died at
Montreux
(Switzerland), 12 June, 1888.
Voysey
(Charles), English Theist, b. London 18 March, 1828. Graduated
B.A. at Oxford,
'51, was vicar of Healaugh, Yorkshire, '64-71, and
deprived 11
Feb. '71 for heresy in sermons published in The Sling
and the Stone.
He has since established a Theistic Church in Swallow
Street,
Piccadilly, and his sermons are regularly published. He has
also issued
Fragments from Reimarus, '79, edited The Langham Magazine
and published
Lectures on the Bible and the Theistic Faith, etc.
Vulpian (Edme
Felix Alfred), French physician, b. 5 Jan. 1826. Wrote
several medical
works and upon being appointed lecturer at the School
of Medicine,
'69, was violently opposed on account of his Atheism. He
was afterwards
elected to the Academy of Sciences. Died 17 May, 1887.
Wagner (Wilhelm
Richard), German musical composer and poet, b. Leipsic,
22 May, 1813.
From '42-49 he was conductor of the Royal Opera, Dresden,
but his
revolutionary sentiments caused his exile to Switzerland, where
he produced his
"Lohengrin." In '64 he was patronised by Ludwig II. of
Bavaria, and
produced many fine operas, in which he sought that poetry,
scenery, and music
should aid each other in making opera dramatic. In
philosophy he
expressed himself a follower of Schopenhauer. Died at
Venice, 13 Feb.
1883.
Waite (Charles
Burlingame), American judge, b. Wayne county, N.Y. 29
Jan. 1824.
Educated at Knox College, Illinois, he was admitted to the
Bar in '47.
After successful practice in Chicago, he was appointed
by President
Lincoln Justice of the Supreme Court of Utah. In '81 he
issued his
History of the Christian Religion to the year A.D. 200,
a rationalistic
work, which explodes the evangelical narratives.
Wakeman
(Thaddeus B.), American lawyer and Positivist, b. 29 Dec. 1834,
was one of the
editors of Man and a president of the New York Liberal
Club. A
contributor to the Freethinkers' Magazine.
Walferdin
(François-Hippolyte), b. Langres, 8 June, 1795. A friend
of Arago he
contributed with him to the enlargement of science, and
was decorated
with the Legion of Honor in 1844. He published a fine
edition of the
works of Diderot in '57, and left the bust of that
philosopher to
the Louvre. Died 25 Jan. 1880.
Walker (E.), of
Worcester. Owenite author of Is the Bible True? and
What is
Blasphemy? 1843.
Walker (Edwin
C.), editor of Lucifer and Fair Play, Valley Falls,
Kansas.
Walker
(Thomas), orator, b. Preston, Lancashire, 5 Feb. 1858. Went
to America and
at the age of sixteen took to the platform. In
'77 he went to
Australia, and for a while lectured at the Opera,
Melbourne. In
'82 he started the Australian Secular Association, of
which he was
president for two years when he went to Sydney. In '85
he was
convicted for lecturing on Malthusianism, but the conviction
was quashed by
the Supreme Court. In '87 he was elected M.P. for
Northumberland
district. Is President of Australian Freethought Union.
Walser (George
H.), American reformer, b. Dearborn Co. Indiana,
26 May, 1834.
Became a lawyer, and a member of the legislature
of his State.
He founded the town of Liberal Barton Co. Missouri,
to try the
experiment of a town without any priest, church, chapel
or drinking
saloon. Mr. Walser has also sought to establish there a
Freethought
University.
Ward (Lester
Frank). American botanist, b. Joliet, Illinois, 18
June, 1841. He
served in the National Army during the civil war and
was wounded. In
'65 he settled at Washington and became librarian
of the U.S.
bureau of statistics. He is now curator of botany and
fossil plants
in the U.S. national museum. Has written many works
on
paleo-botany, and two volumes of sociological studies entitled
Dynamic
Sociology. He has contributed to the Popular Science Monthly.
Ward (Mary A.),
translator of Amiel's Journal, and authoress of a
popular novel
Robert Elsmere, 1888.
Warren
(Josiah). American reformer, b. 26 June, 1798. He took an
active part in
Robert Owen's communistic experiment at New Harmony,
Indiana, in
'25-6. His own ideas he illustrated by establishing a
"time
store" at Cincinnati. His views are given in a work entitled
True
Civilisation. Died Boston, Mass. 14 April, 1874.
Washburn (L.
K.), American lecturer and writer, b. Wareham, Plymouth,
Mass., 25
March, 1846. In '57 he went to Barre. Was sent to a Unitarian
school for
ministers, and was ordained in Ipswich, Feb. '70. He read
from the pulpit
extracts from Parker, Emerson, and others instead
of the Bible.
He went to Minneapolis, where he organised the first
Freethought
Society in the State. He afterwards resided at Revere,
and delivered
many Freethought lectures, of which several have been
published. He
now edits the Boston Investigator.
Waters
(Nathaniel Ramsey), American author of Rome v. Reason, a memoir
of Christian
and extra Christian experience.
Watson (James),
English upholder of a free press, b. Malton (Yorks),
21 Sept. 1799.
During the prosecution of Carlile and his shopmen in
1822 he
volunteered to come from London to Leeds. In Feb. '23 he was
arrested for
selling Palmer's Principles of Nature, tried 23 April,
and sentenced
to twelve months' imprisonment, during which he read
Gibbon, Hume,
and Mosheim. When liberated he became a compositor on the
Republican. In
'31 Julian Hibbert gave him his type and presses, and he
issued Volney's
Lectures on History. In Feb. '33 he was sentenced to
six months'
imprisonment for selling The Poor Man's Guardian. Hibbert
left him £450,
which he used in printing d'Holbach's System of Nature,
Volney's Ruins,
F. Wright's Lectures, R. D. Owen's pamphlets, Paine's
works, and
other volumes. Died at Norwood, 29 Nov. 1874.
Watson
(Thomas), author of The Mystagogue, Leeds, 1847.
Watts
(Charles), Secularist orator, b. Bristol, 28 Feb. 1835. Converted
to Freethought
by hearing Charles Southwell, he became a lecturer
and assistant
editor on the National Reformer. Mr. Watts has had
numerous
debates, both in England and America, with Dr. Sexton,
Rev. Mr.
Harrison, Brewin Grant, and others. He started the Secular
Review with G.
W. Foote, and afterwards Secular Thought of Toronto. He
wrote a portion
of The Freethinker's Text Book, and has published
Christianity:
its Origin, Nature and Influence; The Teachings of
Secularism
compared with Orthodox Christianity, and other brochures.
Watts (Charles
A.), a son of above, b. 27 May, 1858. Conducts Watts's
Literary
Gazette and edits the Agnostic Annual.
Watts (John),
brother of Charles, b. Bedminster, Bristol, 2
Oct. 1834. His
father was a Wesleyan preacher, and he was converted
to Freethought
by his brother Charles. He became sub-editor of the
Reasoner, and
afterwards for a time edited the National Reformer. He
edited Half
Hours With Freethinkers with "Iconoclast," and published
several
pamphlets, Logic and Philosophy of Atheism, Origin of Man,
Is Man
Immortal? The Devil, Who were the Writers of the New Testament,
etc. Died 31
Oct. 1866.
Watts (of
Lewes, Sussex), author of the Yahoo, a satire in verse
(first
published in 1833), also The Great Dragon Cast Out.
Webber
(Zacharias), Dutch painter, who in the seventeenth century
wrote heretical
works On the Temptation of Christ and The Seduction
of Adam and
Eve, etc. He defended Bekker, whom he surpassed in
boldness. Under
the pen name J. Adolphs he wrote The True Origin,
Continuance and
Destruction of Satan. Died in 1679.
Weber (Karl
Julius), German author, b. Langenburg, 16 April,
1767. Studied
law at Erlangen and Göttingen. He lived for a while
in Switzerland
and studied French philosophy, which suited his
satirical turn
of mind. He wrote a history of Monkery, 1818-20;
Letters of
Germans Travelling in Germany, '26-28; and Demokritos,
or the
Posthumous Papers of a Laughing Philosopher, '32-36. Died
Kupferzell, 19
July, 1832.
Weitling
(Wilhelm), German social democrat, b. Magdeburg, 1808. He
was a leader of
"Der Bund der Gerechten," the League of the Just,
and published
at Zürich The Gospel of Poor Sinners. He also wrote
Humanity, As It
Is and As It Should Be. He emigrated to America,
where he died
25 Jan. 1871.
Wellhausen
(Julius), German critic, b. Hameln 17 May, 1844, studied
theology at
Göttingen, and became professor in Griefswald, Halle,
and Marburg. Is
renowned for his History of Israel in progress, '78,
etc., and his
Prolegomena to the same, and his contributions to the
Encyclopædia
Britannica.
Westbrook
(Richard Brodhead), Dr., American author, b. Pike co.,
Pennsylvania, 8
Feb. 1820. He became a Methodist preacher in '40,
and afterwards
joined the Presbyterians, but withdrew about '60,
and has since
written The Bible: Whence and What? and Man: Whence and
Whither? In '88
Dr. Westbrook was elected President of the American
Secular Union,
and has since offered a prize for the best essay on
teaching
morality apart from religion.
Westerman (W.
B.) During many years, from 1856-68, an active
co-operator on
De Dageraad.
Westra (P.),
Dutch Freethinker, b. 16 March, 1851. Has for some years
been active
secretary of the Dutch Freethought society, "De Dageraad."
Wettstein
(Otto), German American materialist, b. Barmen, 7 April,
1838. About '48
his parents emigrated. In '58 he set up in business as
a jeweller at
Rochelle. He contributed to the Freethinkers' Magazine,
The Ironclad
Age, and other journals, and is treasurer of the National
Secular Union.
White (Andrew
Dickson), American educator, b. Homer, N.Y., 7
Nov. 1832. He
studied at Yale, where he graduated in '53; travelled
in Europe, and
in '57 was elected professor of history and English
literature in
the University of Michigan. He was elected to the State
Senate, and in
'67 became first president of Cornell, a university
which he has
largely endowed. Among his works we must mention The
Warfare of
Science (N.Y., '76) and Studies in General History and in
the History of
Civilisation, '85.
Whitman (Walt),
American poet, b. West Hills, Long Island, N.Y.,
31 May, 1819.
Educated in public schools, he became a printer,
and travelled
much through the States. In the civil war he served
as a volunteer
army nurse. His chief work, Leaves of Grass, with
its noble
preface, appeared in '55, and was acclaimed by Emerson as
"the most
extraordinary piece of wit and wisdom that America has yet
contributed."
It was followed by Drum Taps, November Boughs and Sands
at Seventy.
This "good gray poet" has also written prose essays called
Democratic
Vietas and Specimen Days and Collect.
Wicksell
(Knut), Swedish author and lecturer, b. Stockholm, 30
Dec. 1851,
studied at Upsala, and became licentiate of philosophy in
'85. Has
written brochures on Population, Emigration, Prostitution,
etc., and anonymously
a satirical work on Bible Stories, as by Tante
Malin.
Represented Sweden at the Paris Conference of '89.
Wieland
(Christopher Martin), German poet and novelist, b. near
Biberach, 5
Sept. 1733. A voluminous writer, he was called the
Voltaire of
Germany. Among his works we notice Dialogues of the
Gods, Agathon,
a novel, and Euthanasia, in which he argues against
immortality. He
translated Horace, Lucian and Shakespeare. Died Weimer,
20 Jan. 1813.
His last words were "To be or not to be."
Wiener (Christian),
Dr., German author of a materialistic work on
the Elements of
Natural Laws, 1863.
Wiessner
(Alexander), German writer, author of an examination of
spiritualism
(Leipsic, 1875).
Wigand (Otto
Friedrich), German publisher, b. Göttingen, 10
Aug. 1795. In
1832 he established himself in Leipsic, where he
issued the
works of Ruge, Bauer, Feuerbach, Scherr, and other
Freethinkers.
Died 31 Aug. 1870.
Wightman
(Edward), English anti-Trinitarian martyr of
Burton-on-Trent.
Was burnt at Lichfield 11 April, 1612, being the
last person
burnt for heresy in England.
Wihl (Ludwig),
German poet, b. 24 Oct. 1807. Died Brussels, 16
Jan. 1882.
Wilbrandt
(Adolf), German author, b. Rosbock, 24 Aug. 1837. Has
written on
Heinrich von Kleist, Hölderlin, the poet of Pantheism,
and published
many plays, of which we may mention Giordano Bruno,
1874, and also
some novels.
Wilhelmi
(Hedwig Henrich), German lecturess and author of Vortrage,
published at
Milwaukee, 1889. She attended the Paris Congress of '89.
Wilkinson (Christopher),
of Bradford, b. 1803. Wrote with Squire Farrah
an able
Examination of Dr. Godwin's Arguments for the Existence of God,
published at
Bradford, 1853.
Williams
(David), Welsh deist, b. Cardiganshire, 1738. He became a
dissenting
minister but after publishing two volumes of Sermons on
Religious
Hypocrisy, 1774, dissolved the connections. In conjunction
with Franklin
and others he founded a club and drew up a Liturgy on
the Universal
Principles of Religion and Morality, which he used at a
Deistic chapel
opened in Margaret Street, Cavendish Square, 7 April,
1776. He wrote
various political and educational works, and established
the literary
fund in 1789. Died Soho, London, 29 June, 1816.
Willis
(Robert), physician and writer, b. Edinburgh, 1799. He studied
at the
University and became M.D. in 1819. He soon after came to
London, and in
'23 became M.R.C.S. He became librarian to the College
of Surgeons.
Besides many medical works he wrote a Life of Spinoza,
'70, and
Servetus and Calvin, '77. He also wrote on The Pentateuch and
Book of Joshua
in the face of the Science and Moral Senses of our Age,
and A Dialogue
by Way of Catechism, both published by T. Scott. Died
at Barnes, 21
Sept. 1878.
Wilson (John),
M.A., of Trin. Coll., Dublin, author of Thoughts on
Science,
Theology and Ethics, 1885.
Wirmarsius
(Henrik), Dutch author of Den Ingebeelde Chaos, 1710.
Wislicenus
(Gustav Adolf), German rationalist, b. Saxony, 20
Nov. 1803. He
studied theology at Halle, and became a minister,
but in
consequence of his work Letter or Spirit (1845) was suspended
and founded the
Free Congregation. For his work on The Bible in the
Light of Modern
Culture he was, in Sept. '53, sentenced to prison
for two years.
He went to America, and lectured in Boston and New
York. He returned
to Europe in '56, and stayed in Zürich, where he
died 14 Oct.
1785. His chief work, The Bible for Thinking Readers,
was published
at Leipsic in '63.
Wittichius
(Jacobus), Dutch Spinozist, b. Aken, 11 Jan. 1671. Wrote
on the Nature
of God, 1711. Died 18 Oct. 1739.
Wixon (Susan
H.), American writer and editor of the "Children's Corner"
in the
Truthseeker, has for many years been an advocate of Freethought,
temperance, and
women's rights. She was a school teacher and member
of the Board of
Education of the City of Fall River, Mass., where
she resides.
She contributes to the Boston Investigator.
Wollny (Dr.
F.), German author of Principles of Psychology (Leipsic,
1887), in the
preface to which he professes himself an Atheist.
Wollstonecraft
(Mary), English authoress, b. Hoxton, 27 April,
1759. She
became a governess. In 1796 she settled in London, and began
her literary
labors with Thoughts on the Education of Daughters. She
also wrote a
Vindication of the Rights of Man, in answer to Burke,
and Vindication
of the Rights of Woman. In 1797 she married William
Godwin, and
died in childbirth.
Wooley
(Milton), Dr., American author of Science of the Bible 1877;
Career of Jesus
Christ, '77; and a pamphlet on the name God. Died
Aug. 1885.
Woolston
(Thomas), Rev. English deist, b. Northampton, 1669. He studied
at Cambridge,
and became a Fellow at Sydney College and a minister. He
published in
1705 The Old Apology, which was followed by other works in
favor of an
allegorical interpretation of Scripture. In 1726 he began
his Six
Discourses upon the Miracles, which were assailed in forcible,
homely
language. Thirty thousand copies are said to have been sold,
and sixty
pamphlets were written in opposition. Woolston was tried for
blasphemy and
sentenced (March, 1729) to one year's imprisonment and
a fine of £100.
This he could not pay, and died in prison 29 Jan. 1733.
Wright
(Elizur), American reformer, b. South Canaan, Litchfield
Co.,
Connecticut, 12 Feb. 1804. He graduated at Yale College,
'26. Having
warmly embraced the principles of the Abolitionists,
he became
secretary of the American Anti-Slavery Society,
and edited the
Abolitionist and Commonwealth. He was a firm and
uncompromising
Atheist, and a contributor to the Boston Investigator,
the
Freethinker's Magazine, etc. Died at Boston, 21 Dec. '85. His
funeral oration
was delivered by Col. Ingersoll.
Wright
(Frances), afterwards D'Arusmont, writer and lecturess,
b. Dundee, 6
Sept. 1795. At the age of eighteen she wrote A Few Days in
Athens, in
which she expounds and defends the Epicurean philosophy. She
visited the
United States, and wrote Views on Society and Manners
in America,
1820. She bought 2,000 acres in Tennessee, and peopled
it with slave
families she purchased and redeemed. She afterwards
joined Owen's experiment;
in part edited the New Harmony Gazette,
and afterwards
the Free Inquirer. A Course of Popular Lectures was
published at
New York in '29, in which she boldly gives her views on
religion. She
also wrote a number of fables and tracts, and assisted
in founding the
Boston Investigator. Died at Cincinnati, 14 Dec. 1852.
Wright (Henry
Clarke), American reformer, b. Sharon, Litchfield
co.
Connecticut, 29 Aug. 1797. A conspicuous anti-slavery orator,
he was a friend
of Ernestine Rose, Lucretia Mott, etc. He wrote The
Living, Present
and the Dead Past. Died Pawtucket, Rhode Island,
16 Aug. 1870.
Wright
(Susannah), one of Carlile's shopwomen. Tried 14 Nov. 1822,
for selling
pamphlets by Carlile. She made a good defence, in the
course of which
she was continually interrupted.
Wundt (Wilhelm
Max), German scientist, b. Neckaran (Baden),
16 Aug. 1832.
His father was a clergyman. He studied medicine at
Tübingen,
Heidelberg, and Berlin, and became professor of physiology at
Heidelberg in
'64, and has since held chairs at Zurich and Leipsic. His
principal works
are Principles of Physiological Psychology, '74;
Manual of Human
Physiology; Logic, '83; Essays, '85; Ethik, '86.
Wuensch
(Christian Ernest), German physician, b. Hohenstein, 1744. Was
Professor of
Mathematics and Physics in Frankfort on the Oder, 1828.
Wyrouboff
(Gr.), Count; Russian Positivist, who established the
Revue de
Philosophie Positive with Littré, and edited it with him
from 1867-83.
Xenophanes,
Greek philosopher, b. Colophon, about 600 B.C. He founded
the Eleatic
school, and wrote a poem on Nature and Eleaticism, in
which he
ridiculed man making gods in his own image.
Ximines
(Augustin Louis), Marquis de, French writer, b. Paris, 26
Feb. 1726. Was
an intimate friend of Voltaire, and wrote several
plays. Died
Paris, 31 May, 1817.
York (J. L.),
American lecturer, b. New York, 1830. He became a
blacksmith,
then a Methodist minister, then Unitarian, and finally
Freethought
advocate. He was for some years member of the California
Legislature,
and has made lecturing tours in Australia and through
the States.
Yorke (J. F.),
author of able Notes on Evolution and Christianity,
London, 1882.
Youmans (Edward
Livingstone), American scientist, b. Coeymans, N.Y.,
3 June, 1821.
Though partially blind he was a great student. He became
M.D. about
1851, and began to lecture on science, popularly expounding
the doctrines
of the conservation of energy and evolution. He
popularised
Herbert Spencer, planned the "International Scientific
Series,"
and in '72 established the Popular Science Monthly, in which
he wrote
largely. Died at New York, 18 Jan. 1887.
Zaborowski
Moindrin (Sigismond), French scientific writer, b. La
Créche, 1851.
Has written on The Antiquity of Man, '74; Pre-historic
Man, '78;
Origin of Languages, '79; The Great Apes, '81; Scientific
Curiosities,
'83.
Zambrini
(Francesco), Italian writer, b. Faenza, 25 Jan. 1810. Educated
at Ravenna and
Bologna. He devoted himself to literature and produced
a great number
of works. Died 9 July, 1887.
Zarco (Francisco),
Mexican journalist, b. Durango, 4 Dec. 1829. Edited
El Siglo XIX
and La Ilustracion, in which he used the pen-name of
"Fortun."
He was elected to Congress in '55, and imprisoned by the
reactionaries
in '60. Juarez made him Secretary of State and President
of Council. He
was a friend of Gagern. Died Mexico, 29 Dec. 1869.
Zeller
(Eduard), German critic, b. Kleinbottwar (Würtemberg), 22
Jan. 1814.
Studied theology at Tübingen and Berlin, became professor
at Berne, '47.
He married a daughter of Baur; gave up theology for
philosophy, of
which he has been professor at Berlin since '72. Has
written a
memoir of Strauss, '74; Outlines of the History of Greek
Philosophy,
'83; Frederick the Great as a Philosopher, '86; and other
important
works.
Zijde (Karel
van der), Dutch writer, b. Overschie, 13 July, 1838. Has
been teacher at
Rotterdam. Under the pen-name of M. F. ten Bergen
he wrote The
Devil's Burial, 1874. Besides this he has written many
literary
articles, and is now teacher of Dutch and German at Zaandam.
Zimmern
(Helen), b. Hamburg, 25 March, 1846. Has lived in England
since '50, and
is naturalised. She has written lives of Schopenhauer
and Lessing,
and a paraphrase of Firdusi's Shah Nahmeh.
Zola (Emile),
French novelist, b. of Italian father, Paris, 2 April,
1840. By his
powerful collection of romances known as Les Rougon
Macquart, he
made himself the leader of the "naturalist" school,
which claims to
treat fiction scientifically, representing life as
it is without
the ideal.
Zorrilla
(Manuel Ruiz), Spanish statesman, b. Burgo-de-Osma, 1834,
became a
lawyer, and in '56 was returned to the Cortes by the
Progressive
party. For a brochure against the Neo-Catholics he was
prosecuted. In
'70 he became President of the Cortes, and has since
been exiled for
his Republicanism.
Zouteveen (H.
H. H. van). See Hartogh.
Zuppetta
(Luigi), Italian jurist and patriot, b. Castelnuovo, 21 June,
1810. He
studied at Naples, took part in the democratic movement of
'48, was exiled
and returned in 1860, and has been Professor of Penal
Law in the
University of Pavia.
SUPPLEMENT.
Those which
have already appeared are marked *
Abd al Hakk ibn
Ibrahim ibn Muhammad ibn Sabin. See Sabin.
Abu Abd'allah
Muhammad ibn Massara al Jabali. Arabian pantheist
b. 881. He lived
at Cordova in Spain and studied the works of
Empedocles and
other Greek philosophers. Accused of impiety, he
left Spain and
travelled through the East. Returned to Spain and
collected
disciples whom he led to scepticism. He was the most eminent
predecessor of
Ibn Rushd or Averroes. Died Oct. 931. His works were
publicly burned
at Seville.
* Acosta
(Uriel), the name of his work was Examen Traditorum
Philosophicarum
ad legem Scriptam.
Acuna (Rosario
de), Spanish writer and lecturess, b. Madrid about
1854.
Contributes to Las Dominicales of Madrid. Has written The Doll's
House, and
other educational works.
* Adams (Robert
C.), American Freethought writer and lecturer,
the son of the
Rev. Needham Adams, b. Boston 1839. He became a
sea-captain,
and was afterwards shipper at Montreal. Has written
in Secular
Thought, the Truthseeker and the Freethinker's Magazine,
and published
rational lectures under the title Pioneer Pith, '89. In
'89 he was
elected President of the Canadian Secular Union.
Admiraal
(Aart), Dutch writer, b. Goedereede, 13 Oct. 1833. At first
a schoolmaster,
he became in '60 director of the telegraph bureau at
Schoonhoven. He
wrote from '56 for many years in De Dageraad over
the anagram
"Aramaldi." In '67 he published The Religion of the
People under
the pseudonym "Bato van der Maas," a name he used in
writing to many
periodicals. A good mind and heart with but feeble
constitution.
He died 12 Nov. 1878.
Airoldi (J.)
Italian lawyer, b. Lugano (Switzerland), 1829; a poet
and writer of
talent.
Albaida (Don
Jose M. Orense), Spanish nobleman (marquis), one of the
founders of the
Republican party. Was expelled for his principles;
returned to
Spain, and was president of the Cortes in 1869.
* Alchindus.
Died about 864.
* Aleardi had
better be deleted. I am now told he was a Christian.
Alfarabi. See
Alpharabius.
Algeri
(Pomponio), a youth of Nola. Studied at Padua, and was accused
of heresy and
Atheism, and burnt alive in a cauldron of boiling oil,
pitch, and
turpentine at Rome in 1566.
Alkemade (A. de
Mey van), Dutch nobleman, who contributed to
De Dageraad,
and also published a work containing many Bible
contradictions,
1862; and in '59 a work on the Bible under the pen name
"Alexander
de M."
Allais (Denis
de). See Vairasse.
Allais
(Giovanni), Italian doctor, b. Casteldelfino, 1847.
Almquist
(Herman), Swedish, b. 1839, orientalist; professor of
philology at
the University of Upsala. An active defender of new
ideas and
Freethought.
Altmeyer (Jean
Jacques), Belgian author, b. Luxembourg, 20
Jan. 1804. Was
professor at the University of Brussels. He wrote an
Introduction to
the Philosophical Study of the History of Humanity,
'36, and other
historical works. Died 15 Sept. 1877.
Amari
(Michele), Sicilian historian and orientalist, b. Palmero, 7
July, 1806. In
'32 he produced a version of Scott's Marmion. He wrote
a standard
History of the Musulmen in Sicily. After the landing of
Garibaldi, he
was made head of public instruction in the island. He
took part in
the anti-clerical council of '69. Died at Florence,
July 1889.
* Amaury de
Chartres. According to L'Abbè Ladvocat his disciples
maintained that
the sacraments were useless, and that there was no
other heaven
than the satisfaction of doing right, nor any other hell
than ignorance
and sin.
Anderson (Marie),
Dutch lady Freethinker, b. the Hague, 2
Aug. 1842. She
has written many good articles in de Dageraad, and
was for some
time editress of a periodical De Twintigste Eeuw (the
twentieth
century). She has also written some novels. She resides now
at Würzburg,
Germany, and contributes still to de Dageraad. As pen-name
she formerly
used that of "Mevrouw Quarlès" and now "Dr. Al. Dondorf."
* Anthero de
Quental. This name would be better under Quental.
Apono. See
Petrus de Abano. This would probably be best under Abano.
* Aquila.
Justinian forbade the Jews to read Aquila's version of
the Scriptures.
Aranda (Pedro
Pablo Abarca de Bolea), Count, Spanish statesman,
b. of
illustrious family, Saragossa, 18 Dec. 1718. Was soldier and
ambassador to
Poland. He imbibed the ideas of the Encyclopædists,
and contributed
to the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain in 1767. He
also disarmed
the Inquisition. In 1792 he was elected Spanish minister
to France. He
was recalled and exiled to Aragon, where he died in 1799.
Argilleres
(Antoine), at first a Jacobin monk and afterwards a
Protestant
preacher, was tortured several times, then decapitated and
his head nailed
to a gibbet at Geneva, 1561-2, for having eight years
previously
taken the part of Servetus against Calvin at Pont-de-Veyle
in Bresse.
* Arnould
(Victor). Has continued his Tableau in the Positivist
Revue and La
Societé Nouvelle. From 1868 to '73 he edited La Liberté,
in which many a
battle for Freethought has been fought.
Ascarate
(Gumezindo de), Spanish professor of law at the University of
Madrid and
Republican deputy, b. Leon about 1844. One of the ablest
Radical
parliamentary orators; in philosophy, he is a follower of
Krause. He has
written Social Studies, Self-Government and Monarchy,
and other
political works.
Aszo y Del Rio
(Ignacio Jordan de), Spanish jurist and naturalist,
b. Saragossa,
1742. Was professor at Madrid, and left many important
works on
various branches of science. In his political works he
advocated the
abolition of ecclesiastical power. Died 1814.
* Aubert de
Verse (Noel) had probably better be omitted, although
accused of
blasphemy himself, I find he wrote an answer to Spinoza,
which I have
not been able to see.
Auerbach
(Berthold), German novelist of Jewish extraction,
b. Nordstetten,
28 Feb. 1812. Devoted to Spinoza, in '41 he published
a life of the
philosopher and a translation of his works, having
previously
published an historical romance on the same subject. Died
Cannes, 8 Feb.
1882.
* Aymon (Jean).
La vie et L'Esprit de M. Benoit Spinoza (La Haye,
1719) was
afterwards issued under the famous title Treatise of Three
Impostors.
* Bahrdt (Karl
Friedrich). The writings of this enfant terrible of
the German
Aufklarung fill 120 volumes.
* Bailey
(William Shreeve) was born 10 Feb. 1806. He suffered much
on account of
his opinions. Died Nashville, 20 Feb 1886. Photius Fisk
erected a
monument to his memory.
* Bancel
(Francis Désiré). In his work Les Harangues de l'Exil, 3
vols., 1863,
his Freethought views are displayed. He also wrote in
La Revue
Critique.
Barnaud
(Nicolas), of Crest in Dauphiné. Lived during the latter half
of the
sixteenth century. He travelled in France, Spain, and Germany,
and to him is
attributed the authorship of a curious work entitled Le
Cabinet du Roy
de France, which is largely directed against the clergy.
Barreaux. See
des Barreaux.
Barth
(Ferdinand), b. Mureck, Steyermark Austria, 1828. In '48 he
attained
reputation as orator to working men and took part in the
revolution.
When Vienna was retaken he went to Leipzig and Zurich,
where he died
in 1850, leaving a profession of his freethought.
Bartrina,
Spanish Atheistic poet, b. Barcelona, 1852, where he died
in 1880.
Bedingfield
(Richard, W. T.), Pantheistic writer, b. May, 1823,
wrote in
National Reformer as B.T.W.R., established Freelight,
'70. Died 14
Feb. 1876.
* Berigardus
(Claudius), b. 15 Aug. 1578.
* Bertillon
(Louis Adolphe). In a letter to Bp. Dupanloup, April, '68,
he said, You
hope to die a Catholic, I hope to die a Freethinker. Died
1883.
* Berwick
(George J.) M.D., Dr. Berwick, I am informed, was the author
of the tracts
issued by Thomas Scott of Ramsgate with the signature of
"Presbyter
Anglicanus."
Blein (F. A.
A.), Baron, French author of Essais Philosophiques,
Paris, 1843.
Blum (Robert),
German patriot and orator, b. Cologne, 10 Nov. 1807. He
took an active
part in progressive political and religious movements,
and published
the Christmas Tree and other publications. In '48 he
became deputy
to the Frankfort Parliament and head of the Republican
party. He was
one of the promoters at the insurrection of Vienna,
and showed
great bravery in the fights of the students with the
troops. Shot at
Vienna, 9 Nov. 1848.
* Blumenfleld
(J. C.), this name I suspect to be a pseudonym.
Bolin (A. W.),
a philosophic writer of Finland, b. 2 Aug. 1835. Studied
at Helsingford,
'52, and became Doctor of Philosophy in '66, and
Professor in
'73. He has written on the Freedom of the Will, The
Political
Doctrines of Philosophy, etc. A subject of Russian Finland;
he has been
repeatedly troubled by the authorities for his radical
views on
religious questions.
Bolivar
(Ignacio), Spanish professor of natural history at the
University of
Madrid, and one of the introducers of Darwinian ideas.
Boppe (Herman
C.), editor of Freidenker of Milwaukee, U.S.A.
Borsari
(Ferdinand), Italian geographer, b. Naples, author of a work
of the
literature of American aborigines, and a zealous propagator
of Freethought.
Bostrom
(Christopher Jacob), Swedish Professor at Upsala, b. 4
Jan. 1797.
Besides many philosophical works, published trenchant
criticism of
the Christian hell creed. Died 22 March, 1866.
Boucher (E.
Martin), b. Beaulieu 1809. Conducted the Rationaliste
at Geneva,
where he died 1882. His work Search for the Truth was
published at
Avignon, 1884.
Bourneville
(Magloire Désir), French deputy and physician,
b. Garancières,
21 Oct. 1840. Studied medicine at Paris, and in '79
was appointed
physician to the asylum of Bicêtre. He was Municipal
Councillor of
Paris from '76 to '83. On the death of Louis Blanc he
was elected
deputy in his place. Wrote Science and Miracle, '75;
Hysteria in
History, '76; and a discourse on Etienne Dolet at the
erection of the
statue to that martyr, 18 May 1889.
Boutteville
(Marc Lucien), French writer, professor at the Lycee
Bonaparte.
Wrote to Dupanloup on his pamphlet against Atheism, 1867;
wrote in La
Pensée Nouvelle, '68; is author of a large and able work
on the Morality
of the Church and Natural Morality, '66; and has
edited the
posthumous works of Proudhon, 1870.
* Bovio
(Giovanni), b. Trani, 1838, Dr. of law and advocate. Author
of a dramatic
piece, Cristo alla festa di Purim, and of a History
of Law in
Italy. Signor Bovio delivered the address at unveiling the
monument to
Bruno at Rome, 9 June, 1889.
Boyer. See
Argens.
* Bradlaugh
(Charles), M.P. In April, 1889, he introduced a Bill to
repeal the
Blasphemy Laws.
Braga
(Teofilo), Portuguese Positivist, b. 24 Feb. 1843. Educated
at Coimbra. Has
written many poems, and a History of Portuguese
Literature. Is
one of the Republican leaders.
Branting
(Hjalmar), Swedish Socialist, b. 1860. Sentenced in '88
to three
months' imprisonment for blasphemy in his paper Social
Democraten.
Braun (Eugen),
Dr. See F. W. Ghillany.
Braun (Wilhelm
von), Swedish humoristic poet, b. 1813. He satirised
many of the
Bible stories. Died 1860.
Brewer
(Ebenezer Cobham), English author. Has written numerous school
books, and
compiled a Dictionary of Miracles, 1884.
Brismee
(Desiré), Belgian printer, b. Ghent, 27 July, 1822. As editor
of Le Drapeau
he underwent eighteen months' imprisonment. The principle
founder of Les
Solidaires, he was the life-long secretary of that
society, and
his annual reports are a valuable contribution towards
the history of
Freethought in Belgium. An eloquent speaker, many of
his Freethought
orations were printed in La Tribune du Peuple. Died
at Brussels 18
Feb. 1888.
* Brothier
(Léon). Died about 1874.
* Brown (G. W.)
Dr. Brown's new work is published at Rockford,
Illinois, and
entitled Researches in Jewish History, including the rise
and development
of Zoroastrianism and the derivation of Christianity.
* Bruno
(Giordano), b. Nola, 21 March, 1548. The Avisso di Roma
of 19 Feb.
1600, records the fact of his being burnt, and that he
died impenitent.
Signor Mariotti, State Secretary to the Minister
of Public
Instruction, has found a document proving that Bruno was
stripped naked,
bound to a pole, and burnt alive, and that he bore
his martyrdom
with great fortitude.
Buen (Odon de),
Spanish writer on Las Dominicales, of Madrid,
b. Aragon,
1884. Professor of Natural History at the University of
Barcelona. Has
written an account of a scientific expedition From
Christiania to
Treggurt, has translated Memoirs of Garibaldi. He
married civilly
the daughter of F. Lozano, and was delegate to the
Paris
Freethought Conference, 1889.
Calderon
(Alfredo), Spanish journalist and lawyer, b. 1852. He edits
La Justicia.
Has written several books on law.
Calderon
(Lauresmo), Professor of Chemistry in the University of
Madrid, b.
1848. Is a propagator of Darwinian ideas.
Calderon
(Salvador), Spanish geologist and naturalist, b. 1846;
professor at
the University of Seville. Has made scientific travels
in Central
America, and written largely on geological subjects.
Calvo (Rafael),
Spanish actor and dramatic author, b. 1852. A
pronounced
Republican and Freethinker.
* Canestrini
(Giovanni), b. Revo (Trente), 26 Dec. 1835.
Cassels (Walter
Richard), a nephew of Dr. Pusey, is the author of
Supernatural
Religion, a critical examination of the worth of the
Gospels (two
vols. 1874 and three '79). Has written under his own name
Eidolon and
other poems, 1850, and Poems, '56. In '89 he published
A Reply to Dr.
Lightfoot's Essays.
Castro
(Fernando), Spanish philosopher and historian. He was a
priest, and on
his death-bed confessed himself a Freethinker, and
had a secular
burial. Died about 1874, aged 60 years.
Cavia
(Mariano), Spanish journalist and critic, b. 1859, editor of
the Liberal of
Madrid.
* Coke (Henry),
author of Creeds of the Day, is the third son of the
first Earl of
Leicester, and was born 3 Jan. 1827. He served in the
navy during the
first China War, 1840-42. Published accounts of the
siege of
Vienna, '48, at which he was present, also "Ride over Rocky
Mountains,"
which he accomplished with great hardships in '50. Was
private
secretary to Mr. Horsman when Chief Secretary for Ireland in
'54-'58.
Married Lady K. Egerton, 1861.
Cornette (Henri
Arthur Marie), Belgian professor of Flemish literature
at Antwerp, b.
Bruges, 27 March, 1852. A writer in L'Avenir of
Brussels and
the Revue Socialite, he has published separate works
on Freemasonry,
1878; Pessimism and Socialism, '80; Freethought
Darwinism, etc.
Curros
(Enriquez), living Spanish poet, who was prosecuted by the
Bishop of
Santiago, of Galicia, for his collection of poems entitled
Airs of my
Country, but he was acquitted by the jury.
Czerski
(Johannes), German reformer, b. Warlubien, West Prussia, 12
May, 1813. He
became a Catholic priest in '44, broke with the Church,
associated
himself with Ronge, married, and was excommunicated. Has
written several
works against Roman Catholicism, and is still living
at
Schneidemükl-Posen.
D'Ercole
(Pasquale), Italian professor of philosophy in the University
of Turin, author
of a work on Christian Theism, in which he holds
that the
principles of philosophic Theism are undemonstrated and at
variance both
with reality and with themselves.
Deschanel
(Emile Auguste), French senator, b. Paris, 19 Nov. 1819. He
wrote in the Revue
Independante, Revue des Deux Mondes and Liberté de
Penser; for
writing against clericalism in the last he was deprived
of his chair.
After 2 Dec. he went to Belgium. He has been Professor
of Modern
Literature at the College of France, and written many
important
works.
Desnoiresterres
(Gustave le Brisoys), Frenchman of letters,
b. Bayeux, 20
June, 1817, author of Epicurienes et Lettres XVII. and
XVIII. Siècles,
1881, and Voltaire et la Société Française au
XVIII. Siècle,
an important work in eight vols.
* Desraimes
(Maria), b. 15 Aug. 1835.
Diogenes
(Apolloinates), a Cretan, natural philosopher, who lived
in the fifth
century B.C. He is supposed to have got into trouble at
Athens through
his philosophical opinions being considered dangerous to
the State. He
held that nothing was produced from nothing or reduced
to nothing;
that the earth was round and had received its shape from
whirling. He
made no distinction between mind and matter.
Donius
(Augustinus), a Materialist, referred to by Bacon. His work,
De Natura
Dominis, in two books, 1581, refers the power of the spirit,
to motion. The
title of his second book is "Omnes operationes spiritus
esse motum et
semum."
Dosamantes
(Jesus Ceballos), Mexican philosopher; author of works on
Absolute
Perfection, Mexico, 1888, and Modern Pharisees and Sadducees
(mystics and
materialists), '89.
Druskowitz
(Helene), Dr., b. Vienna, 2 May, 1858. Miss Druskowitz is
Doctor of
philosophy at Dresden, and has written a life of Shelley,
Berlin, '84; a
little book on Freewill, and The New Doctrines, '83.
Dufay (Henri),
author of La Legende du Christ, 1880.
Duller
(Eduard), German poet and historian, b. Vienna, 18 Nov. 1809. He
wrote a History
of the Jesuits (Leipsic, '40) and The Men of the People
(Frankfort,
'47-'50). Died at Wiesbaden, 24 July, 1853.
* Du Marsais
(César Chesneau). He edited Mirabaud's anonymous work
on The World
and its Antiquity and The Soul and its Immortality,
Londres, 1751.
* Fellowes (R.)
Graduated B.A. at Oxford 1796, M.A. 1801. Died 6
Feb. 1847.
Figueras-y-Moracas
(Estanilas), Spanish statesman and orator,
b. Barcelona,
13 Nov. 1810. Studied law and soon manifested Republican
opinions. In
'51 he was elected to the Cortes, was exiled in '66, but
returned in
'68. He fought the candidature of the Duc de Montpensiér in
'69, and became
President of the Spanish Republic 12 Feb. '73. Died
poor in 1879,
and was buried without religious ceremony, according
to his wish.
Fitzgerald
(Edward), English poet and translator, b. near Woodbridge,
Suffolk, 31
March, 1809. Educated at Cambridge and took his degree in
'30. He lived
the life of a recluse, and produced a fine translation
of Calderon.
His fame rests securely on his fine rendering of the
Quatrains of
Omar Khayyam. Died 14 June, 1883.
Galletti
(Baldassare), cavalier Pantheist of Palermo. Has translated
Feuerbach on
Death and Immortality, and also translated from
Morin. Died
Rome, 18 Feb. 1887.
Ganeval
(Louis), French professor in Egypt, b. Veziat, 1815, author
of a work on
Egypt and Jesus devant l'histoire n'a jamais vécu. The
first part,
published in '74, was prohibited in France, and the second
part was
published at Geneva in '79.
Garrido
(Fernando), Spanish writer, author of Memoirs of a Sceptic,
Cadiz 1843, a
work on Contemporary Spain, published at Brussels in
'62, The
Jesuits, and a large History of Political and Religious
Persecutions, a
work rendered into English in conjunction with
C. B. Cayley.
Died at Cordova in 1884.
Gerling (Fr.
Wilhelm), German author of Letter of a Materialist
to an Idealist,
Berlin 1888, to which Frau Hedwig Henrich Wilhelmi
contributes a
preface.
Geroult de
Pival, French librarian at Rouen; probably the author of
Doutes sur la
Religion, Londres, 1767. Died at Paris about 1772.
Goffin
(Nicolas), founder of the Society La Libre of Liége and
President of La
Libre Pensée of Brussels, and one of the General
Council of the
International Federation of Freethinkers. Died 23
May, 1884.
Goldhawke (J.
H.), author of the Solar Allegories, proving that the
greater number
of personages mentioned in the Old and New Testaments
are allegorical
beings, Calcutta 1853.
Gorani
(Giuseppe), count, b. Milan, 1744. He was intimate with
Beccaria,
D'Holbach, and Diderot. He wrote a treatise on Despotism,
published
anonymously, 1770; defended the French Revolution and was
made a French
citizen. Died poor at Geneva, 12 Dec. 1819.
Govett (Frank),
author of the Pains of Life, 1889, a pessimistic
reply to Sir J.
Lubbock's Pleasures of Life. Mr. Govett rejects the
consolations of
religion.
Guimet (Etienne
Emile), French traveller, musician, anthropologist
and
philanthropist, b. Lyons, 2 June, 1836, the son of the inventor
of ultramarine,
whose business he continued. He has visited most
parts of the
world and formed a collection of objects illustrating
religions.
These he formed into a museum in his native town, where he
also founded a
library and a school for Oriental languages. This fine
museum which
cost several million francs, he presented to his country,
and it is now
at Paris, where M. Guimet acts as curator. In 1880 he
began
publishing Annales du Musée Guimet, in which original articles
appear on
Oriental Religions. He has also written many works upon his
travels. He
attended the banquet in connection with the International
Congress of
Freethinkers at Paris, 1889.
Guynemer (A. M.
A. de), French author of a dictionary of astronomy,
1852, and an
anonymous unbelievers' dictionary, '69, in which many
points of
theology are discussed in alphabetical order.
Hamerling
(Robert), German poet, b. Kirchberg am Wald, 24 March,
1830. Author of
many fine poems, of which we mention Ahasuerus in Rome'66. The King of Sion;
Danton and Robespierre a tragedy. He translatedLeopardis' poems '86. Died at
Gratz, 13 July, 1889.
Heyse (Paul
Johann Ludwig), German poet and novelist, b. Berlin,
15 March, 1830.
Educated at the University, after travelling to
Switzerland and
Italy he settled at Munich in '54. Has produced many
popular plays
and romances, of which we specially mention The Children
of the World,
'73, a novel describing social and religious life of
Germany at the
present day, and In Paradise, 1875.
Hicks (L. E.)
American geologist, author of A Critique of Design
Arguments.
Boston, 1883.
Hitchman
(William), English physician, b. Northleach, Gloucestershire,
1819, became
M.R.C.S. in '41, M.D. at Erlangen, Bavaria. He established Freelight, and wrote
a pamphlet, Fifty Years of Freethought. Died 1888.
Hoeffding
(Harald), Dr., Professor of Philosophy at the University of
Copenhagen, b.
Copenhagen, 1843. Has been professor since '83. Is
absolutely free
in his opinion and has published works on the newer
philosophy in
Germany, '72, and in England, '74. In the latter work
special
attention is devoted to the works of Mill and Spencer. German
editions have
been published of his works Grundlage der humanen
Ethik (Basis of
Human Ethics '80), Psychologie im Umriss (Outlines
of Psychology
'87), and Ethik 1888.
Holst (Nils
Olaf), Swedish geologist, b. 1846. Chairman of the Swedish
Society for
Religious Liberty.
Ignell (Nils),
Swedish rationalist, b. 12 July, 1806. Brought
up as a priest,
his free views gave great offence. He translated
Renan's Life of
Jesus, and did much to arouse opposition to orthodox
Christianity.
Died at Stockholm, 3 June, 1864.
Jacobsen (Jens
Peter), Danish novelist and botanist, b. Thistede,
7 April, 1847.
He did much to spread Darwinian views in Scandinavia,
translating the
Origin of Species and Descent of Man. Among his
novels we may
name Fru Marie Grubbe, scenes from the XVII. century,
and Niels
Lyhne, in which he develops the philosophy of Atheism. This
able young
writer died at his birth place, 3 April 1885.
Kleist
(Heinrich von), German poet, b. Frankfurt-on-Oder, 18
Oct. 1777. Left
an orphan at eleven, he enlisted in the army in 1795,
quitted it in four
years and took to study. Kant's Philosophy made
him a complete
sceptic. In 1800 he went to Paris to teach Kantian
philosophy, but
the results were not encouraging. Committed suicide
together with a
lady, near Potsdam, 21 Nov. 1811. Kleist is chiefly
known by his
dramas and a collection of tales.
Letourneau
(Charles Jean Marie), French scientist, b. Auray
(Morbihan),
1831. Educated as physician. He wrote in La Pensée
Nouvelle, and
has published Physiology of the Passions, '68; Biology,
'75, translated
into English by W. Maccall; Science and Materialism,
'79; Sociology
based on Ethnography, '80; and the Evolution of
Marriage and
the Family, '85. He has also translated Büchner's Man
According to
Science, Light and Life and Mental Life of Animals,
Haeckel's
History of Creation, Letters of a Traveller in India,
and Herzen's
Physiology of the Will.
Lippert
(Julius), learned German author of works on Soul Worship,
Berlin, 1881;
The Universal History of Priesthoods, '83; and an
important
Culture History of Mankind, '86-7.
Lloyd (William
Watkiss), author of Christianity in the Cartoons,
London 1865, in
which he criticises Rafael and the New Testament side
by side. He has
also written The Age of Pericles, and several works
on Shakespeare.
Lucian, witty
Greek writer, b. of poor parents, Samosata, on
the Euphrates,
and flourished in the reign of Marcus Aurelius and
Commodus. He
was made a sculptor, but applied himself to rhetoric. He
travelled much,
and at Athens was intimate with Demonax. His principal
works are dialogues,
full of wit, humor, and satire, often directed
against the
gods. According to Suidas he was named the Blasphemer,
and torn to
pieces by dogs for his impiety, but on this no reliance
can be placed.
On the ground of the dialogue Philopatris, he has
been supposed
an apostate Christian, but it is uncertain if that
piece is
genuine. It is certain that he was sceptical, truth-loving,
and an enemy of
the superstition of the time which he depicts in his
account of
Alexander, the false prophet.
Maglia (Adolfo
de), Spanish journalist, b. Valencia, 3 June,
1859, began
writing in La Tronada at Barcelona, and afterwards
published
L'Union Republicana. He founded the Freethinking group
"El
Independiente" and edits El Clamor Setabense and El Pueblo
Soberano. Was secretary
for Spain at the Anticlerical Congress at Rome
in '85, and in
'89 at Paris. During this year he has been condemned
to six years'
imprisonment and a fine of 4,000 francs for attacking
Leo XIII. and
the Catholic dogmas.
disciples, whom
he conducted from faith to scepticism. He was the most
eminent
predecessor of Ibn Roschd or Averroës. Died Oct.-Nov. 931. His works were
publicly burned at Seville.
Mata (Pedro),
Spanish physician, professor at the University of
Madrid. Author
of a poem, Glory and Martyrdom, 1851; a Treatise on
Human Reason,
'58-64; and on Moral Liberty and Free Will, '68.
Mendizabal
(Juan Alvarez), Spanish Liberal statesman, b. Cadiz,
1790. Was
minister during the reign of Cristina, and contributed
to the
subjugation of the clerical party. He abolished the religious
orders and
proclaimed their goods as national property. Died at Madrid,
3 Nov. 1853.
* Meredith
(Evan Powell), b. 1811. Educated at Pontypool College, he
became a
Baptist minister, and was an eloquent preacher in the Welsh
tongue. He
translated the Bible into Welsh. Investigation into the
claims of
Christianity made him resign his ministry. In his Prophet
of Nazareth he
mentioned a purpose of writing a work on the gospels,
but it never
appeared. He died at Monmouth 23 July, 1889.
Miralta
(Constancio), the pen name of a popular Spanish writer,
b. about 1849.
Has been a priest and doctor of theology, and is one
of the writers
on Las Dominicales. His most notable works are Memoirs
of a Poor
Clerical, The Secrets of Confession, and The Sacrament
Exposed. His
work on The Doctrine of Catholicism upon Matrimony has
greatly
encouraged civil marriages.
Moraita
(Miguel), Spanish historian, b. about 1845. Is Professor
of History at
Madrid, and one of the most ardent enemies of
clericalism.
Has written many works, including a voluminous History
of Spain. In
'84 he made a discourse at the University against
the pretended
antiquity of the Mosaic legends, which caused his
excommunication
by several bishops. He was supported by the students,
against whom
the military were employed. He is Grand Master of the
Spanish
Freemasons.
Moya (Francisco
Xavier), Spanish statistician, b. about 1825. Was
deputy to the
Cortes of 1869, and has written several works on the
infallibility
of the Pope and on the temporal power.
Nakens (José),
Spanish journalist, b. 1846. Founder and editor of El
Motin, a
Republican and Freethought paper of Madrid, in connection
with which
there is a library, in which he has written La Piqueta--the
Pick-axe.
Nees Von Esenbeck
(Christian Gottfried), German naturalist,
b. Odenwald, 14
Feb. 1776. He became a doctor of medicine, and was
Professor of
Botany at Bohn, 1819, and Breslau, '31. He was leader of
the free
religious movement in Silesia, and in '48, took part in the
political
agitations, and was deprived of his chair. Wrote several
works on
natural philosophy. Died at Breslau, 16 March, 1858.
Nyblaus (Claes
Gudmund), Swedish bookseller, b. 1817, has published
some
anti-Christian pamphlets.
Offen
(Benjamin), American lecturer, b. England, 1772. He emigrated to
America and
became lecturer to the Society of Moral Philanthropists at
Tammany Hall,
New York, and was connected With the Free Discussion
Society. He
wrote A Legacy to the Friends of Free Discussion, a
critical review
of the Bible. Died at New York, 12 May, 1848.
Palmaer
(Bernhard Henrik), Swedish satirist, b. 21 Aug. 1801. Author of The Last
Judgment in the Crow Corner. Died at Linkoping, 7 July, 1854.
Panizza
(Mario). Italian physiologist and philosopher; author of a
materialist
work on The Philosophy of the Nervous System, Rome, 1887.
Perez Galdos
(Benito), eminent living Spanish novelist, b. Canary
Islands, lived
since his youth in Madrid. Of his novels we mention
Gloria, which
has been translated into English, and La Familia
de Leon Roch,
1878, in which he stoutly attacks clericalism and
religious
intolerance. He has also written Episodes nacionales,
and many
historical novels.
Regenbrecht
(Michael Eduard), German rationalist, b. Brannsberg,
1792. He left
the Church with Ronge, and became leader of the free
religious
movement at Breslau, where he died 9 June, 1849.
Robert
(Roberto). Spanish anti-clerical satirist, b. 1817. Became
famous by his
mordant style, his most celebrated works being The
Rogues of
Antonio, The Times of Mari Casania, The Skimmer of the
Centuries. Died
in 1870.
Rupp (Julius),
German reformer, b. Königsberg, 13 Aug. 1809. Studied
philosophy and
theology, and became in '42 a minister. He protested
against the
creeds, and became leader of the Free-religious movement
in East
Prussia.
Ryberg (Y. E.),
Swedish merchant captain, b. 16 Oct. 1828. He has
translated
several of Mr. Bradlaugh's pamphlets and other secular
literature.
Sachse
(Heinrich Ernst), German atheist, b. 1812. At Magdeburg he
did much to
demolish the remains of theism in the Free-religious
communities.
Died 1883.
Sales y Ferre
(Manuel), Spanish scientist, b. about 1839. Professor
at the
University of Seville. Has published several works on geology
and prehistoric
times.
Schneider
(Georg Heinrich), German naturalist, b. Mannheim,
1854. Author of
The Human Will from the standpoint of the New
Development
Theory (Berlin, 1882), and other works.
Schreiner
(Olive), the daughter of a German missionary in South
Africa.
Authoress of "The Story of an African Farm," 1883.
Serre (... de
la), author of an Examination of Religion, attributed to
Saint Evremond,
1745. It was condemned to be burnt by the Parliament
of Paris.
Suner y
Capderila. Spanish physician of Barcelona, b. 1828. Became
deputy to the
Cortes in 1829, and is famous for his discourses
against
Catholicism.
Tocco (Felice),
Italian philosopher and anthropologist, b. Catanzaro,
12 Sept. 1845,
and studied at the University of Naples and Bologna,
and became
Professor of Philosophy at Pisa. He wrote in the
Rivista
Bolognese on Leopardi, and on "Positivism" in the Rivista
Contemporanea.
He has published works on A. Bain's Theory of Sensation,'72; Thoughts on the
History of Philosophy, '77; The Heresy of the Middle Ages, '84; and Giordano
Bruno, '86.
Tommasi
(Salvatore), Italian evolutionist, author of a work on
Evolution,
Science, and Naturalism, Naples 1877, and a little pamphlet
in
commemoration of Darwin, '82.
Tubino
(Francisco Maria), Spanish positivist, b. Seville, 1838, took
part in
Garibaldi's campaign in Sicily, and has contributed to the
Rivista
Europea.
Tuthill
(Charles A. H.), author of The Origin and Development of
Christian
Dogma, London, 1889.
Vernial (Paul),
French doctor and member of the Anthropological
Society of Paris,
author of a work on the Origin of Man, 1881.
Wheeler (Joseph
Mazzini), atheist, b. London, 24 Jan., 1850. Converted
from
Christianity by reading Newman, Mill, Darwin, Spencer, etc. Has
contributed to
the National Reformer Secularist, Secular Chronicle,
Liberal,
Progress, and Freethinker which he has sub-edited since
1882, using
occasionally the signatures "Laon," "Lucianus" and other
pseudonyms. Has
published Frauds and Follies of the Fathers '88,
Footsteps of
the Past, a collection of essays in anthropology and
comparative
religion '86; and Crimes of Christianity, written in
conjunction
with G. W. Foote, with whom he has also edited Sepher
Toldoth Jeshu.
The compiler of the present work is a willing drudge
in the cause he
loves, and hopes to empty many an inkstand in the
service of
Freethought.
______________________
Cardiff
Theosophical Society in
Theosophy
House
206
Newport Road, Cardiff, Wales, UK. CF24 -1DL
Find out
more about
Theosophy
with these links
The Cardiff Theosophical Society Website
The National Wales Theosophy Website
If you
run a Theosophy Group, please feel free
to use
any of the material on this site
The Most Basic Theosophy
Website in the Universe
A quick overview of Theosophy
and the Theosophical Society
If you run a Theosophy Group you
can use this as an introductory handout.
Theosophy Cardiff’s Instant Guide
One liners and quick explanations
H P Blavatsky is
usually the only
Theosophist that
most people have ever
heard of. Let’s
put that right
The Voice of the Silence Website
An Independent Theosophical Republic
Links to Free Online Theosophy
Study Resources; Courses,
Writings,
The main criteria
for the inclusion of
links on this
site is that they have some
relationship
(however tenuous) to Theosophy
and are
lightweight, amusing or entertaining.
Topics include
Quantum Theory and Socks,
Dick Dastardly and Legendary Blues Singers.
A selection of
articles on Reincarnation
Provided in
response to the large
number of
enquiries we receive at
Cardiff
Theosophical Society on this subject
The Voice of the Silence Website
This is for everyone, you don’t have to live
in Wales to make good use of this Website
No
Aardvarks were harmed in the
The Spiritual Home of Urban Theosophy
The Earth Base for Evolutionary Theosophy
A
B
C
D
EFG
H
IJ
KL
M
N
OP
QR
S
T
UV
WXYZ
Complete Theosophical Glossary in Plain Text Format
1.22MB
________________
Preface
Theosophy and the Masters General Principles
The Earth Chain Body and Astral Body Kama – Desire
Manas Of Reincarnation Reincarnation Continued
Karma Kama Loka
Devachan
Cycles
Arguments Supporting Reincarnation
Differentiation Of Species Missing Links
Psychic Laws, Forces, and Phenomena
Psychic Phenomena and Spiritualism
Quick Explanations
with Links to More Detailed Info
What is Theosophy ? Theosophy Defined (More Detail)
Three Fundamental Propositions Key Concepts of Theosophy
Cosmogenesis Anthropogenesis Root Races
Ascended Masters After Death States
The Seven Principles of Man Karma
Reincarnation Helena Petrovna Blavatsky
Colonel Henry Steel Olcott William Quan Judge
The Start of the Theosophical
Society
History of the Theosophical
Society
Theosophical Society Presidents
History of the Theosophical
Society in Wales
The Three Objectives of the
Theosophical Society
Explanation of the Theosophical
Society Emblem
The Theosophical Order of
Service (TOS)
Glossaries of Theosophical Terms
Index of
Searchable
Full Text
Versions of
Definitive
Theosophical
Works
H P Blavatsky’s Secret Doctrine
Isis Unveiled by H P Blavatsky
H P Blavatsky’s Esoteric Glossary
Mahatma Letters to A P Sinnett 1 - 25
A Modern Revival of Ancient Wisdom
(Selection of Articles by H P Blavatsky)
The Secret Doctrine – Volume 3
A compilation of H P Blavatsky’s
writings published after her death
Esoteric Christianity or the Lesser Mysteries
The Early Teachings of The Masters
A Collection of Fugitive Fragments
Fundamentals of the Esoteric Philosophy
Mystical,
Philosophical, Theosophical, Historical
and Scientific
Essays Selected from "The Theosophist"
Edited by George Robert Stow Mead
From Talks on the Path of Occultism - Vol. II
In the Twilight”
Series of Articles
The In the
Twilight” series appeared during
1898 in The
Theosophical Review and
from 1909-1913
in The Theosophist.
compiled from
information supplied by
her relatives
and friends and edited by A P Sinnett
Letters and
Talks on Theosophy and the Theosophical Life
Obras
Teosoficas En Espanol
Theosophische
Schriften Auf Deutsch
An Outstanding
Introduction to Theosophy
By a student of
Katherine Tingley
Elementary Theosophy Who is the Man? Body and Soul
Body, Soul and Spirit Reincarnation Karma
Try
these if you are looking for a local
Theosophy
Group or Centre
UK Listing of Theosophical Groups
Cardiff
Theosophical Society in Wales
206 Newport Road, Cardiff, Wales, UK. CF24 -1DL